A  SYLLABUS 


OP 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


BY 

EDWIN    GREENLAW,    Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ENGLISH    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY 
OF    NORTH    CAROLINA 


ou  TToW   aWa  ttoXv 


BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  k  CO. 

CHICAGO        NEW  YORK         BOSTON 
1  9^2  1 


Copyright.  1912, 

BY 

EDWIN  A.  GREENLAW 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  designed  primarily  for  college  courses  in  the  history  of 
English  litera^ture.  Its  object  is  three-fold:  to  supply  the  facts  essential 
to  the  intelligent  reading  of  the  selections;  to  point  out  the  character- 
istics which  render  each  author  significant  in  the  development  of  our  lit- 
erature; to  set  the  student  at  work  for  himself  by  encouraging  him  to 
find  in  the  texts  illustrations  of  the  significant  points  named  in  the  out- 
lines and  in  the  studies.  It  is  expected  that  the  book  will  be  used  in  con- 
junction with  one  of  the  anthologies,  such  as  English  Poetry  and  English 
Prose,  edited  by  Professor  Manly;  Century  Readings  in  English  Litera- 
ture, edited  by  Professors  Cunliffe,  Pyre,  and  Young;  Twelve  Centuries  oi 
English  Poetry  and  Prose,  edited  by  Professor  Newcomer;  or  the  older 
volumes'  of  selections  such  as  Ward's  English  Poets  and  Craik  's  English 
Prose. 

We  no  longer  regard  a  jumble  of  facts  culled  from  a  hand-book  and 
liiixed  with  bits  of  criticism  as  proof  of  a  knowledge  of  literature;  in 
theory,  at  least,  we  send  the  pupil  to  the  poem  or  the  essay.  But  every 
experienced  teacher  knows  that  in  the  present  method  two  dangers  lurk: 
the  failure  of  the  pupil,  through  his  ignorance  of  fundamental  facts,  to 
grasp  the  full  significance  of  a  piece  of  literature,  or  of  a  writer,  or  of  a 
period  of  literary  development;  and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  intelligent 
reading.  These  dangers  we  seek  to  avoid  through  the  lecture,  the  con- 
ference, and  the  examination.  But  if  the  lecturer  finds  it  necessary  to 
dictate  pages  of  dates,  bibliographies,  and  summaries  of  criticism,  and 
the  examination  tests  only  the  memorizing  of  these  facts  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  stories  or  the  themes  of  the  works  studied,  wherein  have  we 
advanced  beyond  the  old  method?  Moreover,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  ask 
a  pupil  untrained  in  methods  of  literary  study  to  read  several  pages  of 

iii 


selections  without  at  the  same  time  giving  him  some  hints  as  to  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  material  he  is  to  consider.  This  book  seeks  to  aid  the 
instructor  by  presenting  in  convenient  form  the  facts  that  must  accom- 
pany the  reading,  and  to  suggest  to  the  pupil  some  of  the  things  he  should 
look  for  in  the  work  assigned  him  for  study.  With  such  preparation,  the 
student  conies  to  the  class-room  with  a  mind  alert,  not  passive,  while 
the  instructor,  freed  from  that  most  deadening  of  educational  processes, 
the  dictation  of  elementary  matter,  may  make  the  most  of  this  alertness. 

While  the  book  contains  more  material  than  can  be  used  in  a  course 
meeting  two  or  three  times  a  week  for  a  year,  it  is  purposely  so  arranged 
that  selection  will  be  easy.  If  it  be  desired  to  limit  the  attention  to  poetry, 
or  to  omit  such  forms  as  the  drama  or  prose  fiction,  or  to  stress  only  the 
more  important  authors,  the  additional  outlines  may  be  neglected  alto- 
gether without  disturbing  the  plan  of  the  course,  or  they  may  be  read 
rapidly  as  connecting  hnks  for  the  toi)i('S  that  are  studied  in  detail.  Sim- 
ilarly, the  various  sections  on  the  drama  or  fiction  or  certain  types  of 
poetry  may  be  grouped  into  a  unit  which  will  supply  a  guide  for  the  study 
of  the  development  of  a  literary  form.  To  this  end,  the  usual  chronolog- 
ical order  has  been  at  times  abandoned,  as  also  in  such  sections  as  deal 
with  a  transitional  period  like  the  seventeenth  century.  The  studies 
given  in  connection  with  the  important  authors  and  periods  may 
serve  as  a  basis  for  discussion  in  the  quiz  section  or  the  conference,  or 
may  be  assigned  to  various  members  of  the  class  for  oral  discussion  oi^ 
written  reports,  or  may  be  omitted.  The  references,  also,  may  be  omitted 
or  used  in  similar  ways;  it  was  not  the  purpose  to  give  extended  bibliog- 
raphies, but  only  such  references  as  are  likely  to  be  of  value  in  a  general 
survey  course  and  are  easily  accessible.  The  blank  pages  may  be  used 
for  additional  references,  or  for  brief  summaries  of  the  reading,  or  for  short 
reports  on  one  of  the  studies,  or  for  comments  made  by  the  instructor. 

In  addition  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  chiefly  designed,  the  book 
will  be  of  service  to  students  who  are  preparing  for  examinations,  to  can- 
didates for  licenses  as  teachers,  and  to  those  private  students  who  desire 
to  carry  on  a  course  in  systematic  reading  and  have  not  the  guidance  of 
a  teacher.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  true  office  of 
such  a  book  is  that  of  a  tool;   knowledge  of  the  facts  that  it  contains  is 

iv 


o 


G-%1^ 


of  value  only  in  connection  with  actual  experience  with  literature  itself. 
Used  in  this  way,  the  outlines,  which  have  been  tested  for  years  under 
such  various  conditions  as  are  incident  to  elementary  courses  in  college, 
extension  classes  for  teachers,  and  the  somewhat  different  set  of  prob- 
lems presented  by  work  in  summer  schools,  will  assist  in  giving  form  and 
point  to  a  general  survey  of  literary  history,  at  the  same  time  supplying 
a  knowledge  of  method  that  will  be  of  service  when  the  student  enters  upon 
more  advanced  work. 

Brooklyn,  April,  1912. 


REFERENCE   LIST 

The  books  named  below  are  referred  to  in  the  Outlines  by  the  author's  name 
or  by  the  first  word  of  the  title  only.  Books  referring  to  special  periods  or  authors 
and  cited  by  title  are  not  included  here. 

Brooke :  English  Literature  from  the  Beginnings  to  the  Norman  Conquest.     (Mac- 

millan.) 
Cambridge   History  of  English  Literature.     (Putnam.) 
Courthope:    History  of  English  Poetry.     (Macmillan.) 
Emerson:      History  of  the  English  Language.     (Macmillan.) 
Jusserand:  Literary  History  of  the  English  People.     (Putnam.) 
Lounsbury:   History  of  the  English  Language.     (Holt.) 

Schofield:  English  Literature  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer.  (Macmillan.) 
Ten  Brink:   History  of  English  Literature.     (Holt.) 
Ward:  English  Poets.     (Macmillan.) 


^.1.^1' 


A  SYLLABUS  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


THE    ANGLO    SAXON    PERIOD 

I.     The  People 

1.  Prehistoric  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Traces  of  several  tribes, 
some  of  which  left  monuments  (Stonehenge). 

2.  Celtic  Britain.  At  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion  the  land  was 
occupied  by  tribes  related  to  the  Celts  of  Spain  and  France. 
These  tribes  contributed  some  words  to  the  English  language  and 
a  considerable  body  of  romantic  legend. 

3.  Roman  Britain.  Caesar's  invasion  55  B.  C. ;  in  42  A.  D.  a  more 
extended  occupation;  in  80  A.  D.  Britain  made  a  Roman  province 
under  Agricola.  Celts  forced  into  Wales  and  the  Scotch  High- 
lands. Roman  influence  on  language  and  literature  inconsiderable. 
In  407-410  Roman  legions  withdrawn  and  Celts  returned  to  old 
possessions. 

4.  The  Anglo  Saxon  Conquest.  Dates  from  about  449.  Three 
invading  tribes:  Angles,  from  Holstein,  settled  north  of  Thames; 
Jutes,  from  Jutland,  settled  mainly  in  Kent;  Saxons,  from  Schles- 
wig,  south  of  Thames.  Celts  forced  by  these  invaders  back  to 
old  retreats,  after  defence  reputed  made  by  King  Arthur.  Anglo- 
Saxon  conquest  complete  by  550. 

5.  The  Danish  Conquest.  About  850  all  England  conquered  by 
Danes,  except  Wessex  (King  Alfred,  871-901). 

References:  Lounsbury,  chaptor  I;  Emerson,  pp.  38-43;  Krapj),  pp.  15-38. 


II.     The  Language 

I.  English   belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family  of  languages. 
This  family  divides  into  eight  branches: 

(a)  Indo-Iranian  (Sanskrit,  Persian,  etc.) 

(b)  Armenian 

(c)  Greek 

(d)  Albanian  (north  of  Greece) 

(e)  Itahc  (Latin;    later,  the  Romance  languages) 
(/)  Celtic  (Gaul,  Britain,  Wales,  Scotch  Highlands) 

(g)  Balto-Slavic  (Russian,  Bulgarian,  Bohemian,  Polish) 
(h)  Teutonic.  This  branch  subdivided  into  East  Germanic 
(Gothic ;  chief  monument  a  translation  of  parts  of  the  Bible  by 
Ulfilas,  fourth  century);  North  Germanic  (Icelandic,  Norse, 
Swedish,  Danish) ;  West  Germanic,  including  English,  Frisian, 
Franconian  (Holland,  Flanders),  Low  German,  High  German. 
Main  characteristics  of  the  Teutonic  branch:  the  great  conso- 
nant shift  (Grimm's  Law);  the  division  of  verbs  into  strong 
and  weak  conjugations;  the  two-fold  declension  of  adjectives; 
fixed  word  accent. 

References:  Emorson,  chapters  I  and  II;  Lounsbury,  introduction;  Krapp, 
pp.  44-55.  For  Celtic  and  Latin  influence  on  the  English  language  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period,  see  Lounsbury,  chapter  III;  Emerson,  chapter  IX;  Krapp, 
pp.  211-219. 


III.     The  Literature 

I.  Epic  and  Lyric 

(a)  Beowulf.  IMS  in  West  Saxon  of  the  tenth  century,  hut 
the  poem  probably  dates  from  the  seventh  century,  while 
the  main  incidents  in  it  are  much  older.  Slight  historical 
element  in  the  fact  that  about  512  A.  D.  Chochilaicus 
(Hygelac),  king  of  the  Danes,  raided  the  lower  Rhine  and  was 
defeated  by  the  Franks.  On  this  raid  a  hero  escaped  by 
swimming.  (Gregory  of  Tours,  Historia  Francorum.)  The 
main  interest,  however,  is  not  in  this  element  but  in  the 
hero's  contests  with  uncanny  powers:  Grendel,  Grendel's 
dam,  the  fire  drake.  The  poem  approaches  epic  in  that  it 
presents  a  more  or  less  complete  biography  of  its  hero;  is 
the  product  of  the  folk;  introduces  the  supernatural,  and 
presents  culture  history  of  a  race. 
(&)   Other  Epic  Poetrj^ 

Finnshurg,  a  fragment  of  fifty  lines  containing  a  vivid 
account  of  the  defence  of  a  hall  during  a  night  attack, 
closely  related  to  a  passage  in  Beowulf  (translated  in 
Gummere,  and  in  most  translations  of  Beowulf). 
Waldhere,  two  fragments  containing  sixty-three  lines. 
The  story  was  also  told  in  the  Latin  Waltharius,  by 
Ekkehard  of  St.  Gall,  tenth  century,  and  in  several 
other  places.  See  the  abstract  of  the  story  in  Cam- 
bridge, L  35-37,  and  the  translation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  fragments  in  Gummere. 

(c)  Lyric  poetry,  closely  related  to  the  poems  named  above: 

Widsith,  relating  the  adventures  of  a  scop  in  his  wander- 
ings to  the  courts  of  various  chiefs  (Cambridge,  L 
37,  38,  and  Brooke,  46-48);  Deor^s  Lament,  also  deal- 
ing with  the  life  of  the  scop  (Brooke.  48,  49).  The 
elegiac  element  is  strong  in  Beoundf,  Widsith,  and 
Dear;  cf.  also  The  Wanderer  (translated  in  Brooke, 
313-310);  and  The  Seafarer  (Brooke,  311,  312). 

(d)  Heroic  poetry :  The  Battle  of  Maldon  (translated  in  Brooke, 


8 

317-324)  and  The  Battle  of  Brunanburh,  (translated  by 
Tennyson). 

Studies. 

1.  Observe  the  characteristics  of  the  verse:  the  half  lines;  the  accents; 

the  alliteration. 

2.  The  style:  repetition;  episode;  epic  speeches;  the  kennings. 

3.  Besides  the  three  main  adventures,  observe  (a)  the  means  by  which 

the  earlier  life  of  the  hero  is  introduced;  (b)  Beowulf's  life  from 
the  time  he  left  the  court  of  Hrothgar  to  his  last  adventure; 
(c)  the  references  to  other  stories  familiar  to  the  poet's  auditors. 

4.  Note  the  combination  of  pagan  and  Christian  elements  in  the  poem. 

5.  What  knowledge  does  the  poem  contribute  as  to  the  position  and 

functions  of  the  scop'? 

6.  Study  the  life  of  the  time:  social  customs;  powers  of  the  king  and 

his  relations  to  his  foUov.ers;  occupations;  religion. 

7.  Nature,  as  viewed  by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

References.  The  «best  translation  of  Beowulf,  w^ith  valuable  introductory  mat- 
ter and  notes,  is  by  Gummere  (The  Oldest  English  Epic,  Macmillan).  A  con- 
venient translation  in  prose,  with  introduction,  is  by  C.  G.  Child,  in  Riverside 
Literature  Series.  Older  translations  are  by  J.  Earle  (prose);  Garnett  (verse); 
and  Hall  (verse).  For  discussions  of  the  history  of  the  poem  and  the  main 
problems  see  especially  Cambridge  I.  chapter  iii.  Cf.  also  Brooke,  chapters  iii 
and  iv,  Courthope,  I.  chapter  iii;  Ten  Brink,  pp.  23-32.  Much  interesting 
material  on  the  character  of  the  poem,  its  relation  to  other  folk  poetry,  and 
the  culture  history  contained  in  it,  are  in  Hart's  Ballad  and  Epic,  Harvard 
Studies  and  A'otes. 

Translations  of  the  poems  named  above,  in  whole  or  in  part,  may  also  be  found 
in  Cook  and  Tinker,  Ten  Brink,  Cambridge,  etc. 


10 

2.  Christian  Poetry 

(a)  Biblical  Paraphrases: 

Genesis,  from  the  creation  to  the  time  of  Abraham; 
a  combination  of  two  poems:  Genesis  A   (11.   1-234, 
852-2735)  and  Geiiesis  B  (II.  235-851).     The  second 
of  these,  based  upon  an  Old  Saxon  poem  and  belonging 
to  the  ninth  century,  deals  with  the  fall  of  Satan  and 
his  angels,  is  more  dramatic  than  Genesis  A,  and  may 
be  compared  with  the  first  book  of   Paradise  Lost. 
Exodus,  the  story  of  the  passage  through   the  Red 
Sea  and  the  destruction  of  the  Egj'ptians.     IMarked 
by  brilliancy  and  vigour  of  imagery,  and  heroic  style. 
Daniel,  a  treatment  of  the  story  of  Daniel  up  to  the 
fifth  chapter;  homiletic  in  style.     Christ  and  Sataii, 
consisting  of  three  poems:    The  Fall  of  the   Angels, 
Christ's  Harrowing  of  Hell,  and   The  Temptation. 
All    these    poems    originally    ascribed    to    Caedmon 
(seventh  century) :  (a)  because  of  Bede's  account  of 
him  and  his  work,   on  which  see  the  translation  in 
Cambridge,  I.  47-49,  and  in  Brooke;  (b)  on  the  author- 
ity of  the  Junian  MS,  published  1655. 
(6)  Cynewulf.     Eighth  century  writer,  personality  and  place 
of  residence  uncertain.    Four  poems  known  to  be  his  by  rea- 
son of  runic  signatures:  Crist,  dealing  with  the  Advent,  As- 
cension, and  Last  Judgment;  (perhaps  not  entirel}^  by  Cyne- 
wulf) ;  Juliana,  Elene  (saints  legends) ;  Fates  of  the  Apostles. 
(c)  The  School  of  Cynewulf:    The  Phoenix,  an   allegorical 
poem  which  applies  the  myth  to  Christ,  marked  by  brilliant 
coloring  and  love  of  nature;  Judith,  an  incomplete  epic  of 
the  apocryphal  heroine,  heroic  style;  Aijdreas,  heroic  poem 
on  a  subject  similar  to  Fates  of  the  Apostles  but  more  brilliant, 
marked  by  love  of  the  sea. 
References:  Cambridge  I.  45-71;  15G-158;  Brooke,  chapters  viii,  ix,  xi,  xii; 
Ten  Brink,  32-47;  371-386;  Jusserand,  I,  68-77;  Cook  and  Tinker,  Select  Trans- 
lations:. 


12 

3-  Prose 

{a)  Bede.  Distinguished  scholar  who  lived  in  Xorthumbria 
in  the  eighth  century;  his  Ecclesiastical  History  (731)  covers 
the  period  from  55  B.  C.  to  731  A.  D. 

(6)  Alfred  (849-901)  King  of  Wessex,  warred  successfully 
on  the  Danes;  patron  of  learning  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  scholars  brought  by  him  into  Wessex,  translated  into  the 
vernacular  Gregory's  Pastoral  Care,  Bede's  Ecclesiastical 
History,  Boethius'  Consolation  of  Philosophy,  and  the  uni- 
versal history  (fifth  century)  by  Orosius.  His  name  con- 
nected with  other  works,  and  he  also  took  an  active  interest 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  His  method  of  translation 
free  rather  than  literal,  the  purpose  being  to  apply  the  wis- 
dom of  these  famous  books  to  special  problems  in  Wessex. 
(c)  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  Based  at  first  on  monastic 
records;  made  more  systematic  by  Alfred;  eventually  covered 
years  from  60  B.  C.  to  1154  A.  D.  First  great  book  in  Eng- 
lish prose;  ranges  from  mere  annals  to  detailed  and  vivid 
description;  also  contains  some  heroic  verse  of  a  high  order. 
{d)  The  Homilists 

The  Blickling  Homilies,  nineteen  in  number,  partly 
homiletic,  partly  narrative  told  for  religious  instruc- 
tion; tenth  century. 

Aelfric,  (Winchester,  tenth  century)  wrote  many 
homilies;  some  deal  with  biblical  and  church  history; 
highly  poetical  style  with  much  alliteration  and  allegory. 

References:  Cambridge  I.  chapters  vi  and  vii;  Brooke,  chapters  xiv  and  xvii; 
Ten  Brink  67-83,  97-115;  Cook  and  Tinker. 


14 

THE   MIDDXE   ENGLISH   PERIOD 

I.     The  Language 

1.  Dialects:  Northern  (Scottish  lowlands,  Northumberland,  Dur- 
ham, Yorkshire,  Lancashire) ;  Midland  (from  the  Humber  to  the 
Thames  and  west  to  Wales;  Southern  (south  of  the  Thames,  Kent, 
Etc.).  These  varied  so  widely  that  the  Northern  dialect  seemed 
a  foreign  language  to  a  southerner. 

2.  Periods:  Early  (1100-1250);  Standard  (1250-1400);  Late 
(1400-1500). 

3.  Characteristics:  leveling  of  Anglo  Saxon  inflections,  e  usually 
taking  the  place  of  the  old  vowel  endings,  but  persistence  of  par- 
tial inflection,  with  retention  of  final  e  as  a  separate  syllable; 
large  additions  to  the  vocabulary  by  influence  of  French,  this 
influence,  however,  coming  rather  from  Paris  than  from  the  Nor- 
mans. 

4.  In  the  fourteenth  century  East  Midland  became  the  literary 
language,  gaining  its  pre-eminence  largely  through  the  work  of 
Chaucer  and  his  contemporaries;  after  this  time  most  dialect 
distinctions  disappear  and  the  language  constantly  approaches 
the  modern  forms.  Note  also  that  the  leveling  of  inflections  pro- 
ceeded more  rapidly  in  the  North  than  elsewhere. 

References:  Ten  Brink,  pp.  119-122;  Schofield,  1-25;  140-144;  Krapp,  74-83; 
Lounsbury,  115-160;  Emerson,  51-83;  Greenough  and  Kittredge,  Words  and 
their  Ways,  83-92. 


16 

II.     Literature  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer 
I.   The  Chronicles 

(a)  Latin  chronicles  of  the  twelfth  century  by  William  of 
Malmesbury,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth. 
Geoffrey  gives  a  highly  romantic  account  of  Arthur,  based, 
he  says,  on  an  old  ''British  book,"  in  which  Arthur  appears 
as  a  world  conqueror,  not  a  fairy  king, 

(6)  The  Brut,  by  Layamon,  c.  1200;  a  verse  chronicle  of  Britain 
from  the  fall  of  Troy  to  689  A.  D.;  based  upon  a  French 
chronicle  by  Wace;  interesting  for  its  style,  which  combines 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  Anglo-Saxon  heroic  verse  with 
the  newer  French  forms,  and  for  its  stories  of  Lear,  Arthur, 
and  other  early  heroes.  It  introduces  the  Round  Table 
and  some  fairy  elements  into  the  .Arthurian  Legend.  30,000 
lines. 

(c)  Robert  of  Gloucester  wrote  a  metrical  chronicle  c.  1300 
based  mainly  on  Geoffrey  for  the  earlier  periods  but  more 
authentic  as  the  author  approached  his  own  time. 

2.  Religious  and  didactic  poetry  and  prose 

(a)  The  Moral  Ode  {Poema  Morale)  (c.  1170)  Aphoristic 
style;  rather  narrow  and  selfish,  yet  not  without  charm. 
{h)  The  Ormulum  (c.  1200)  by  Orrm;  a  verse  paraphrase  of 
parts  of  the  Gospels,  with  detailed  and  wearisome  explana- 
tions; main  interest  due  to  its  being  an  early  attempt  at 
spelling  reform. 

(c)  Cursor  Mundi  (c.  1300)  Biblical  history,  in  verse,  from 
the  Creation  to  Solomon  and  from  the  birth  of  the  Virgin 
to  the  Final  Judgment;  25,000  lines. 

{d)  Richard  Rolle  (c.  1290-1349).  A  hermit  and  mystic 
who  wrote  much  in  verse  and  prose,  Latin  and  English,  on 
meditation,  mystical  exaltation,  and  the  Christian  life. 
Best  known  poem  The  Pricke  of  Conscience. 

3.  Debates.  This  popular  literary  type  included  both  religious 
and  secular  subjects;  most  notable  poems:  The  Body  and  the  Soul 
(c.  1200),  and  The  Owl  and  the  Nightingale  (c.  1250). 


18 

4*  Lyrics.  Many  of  these  are  love  poems  addressed  to  the  Virgin  ; 
others  are  the  famous  Cuckoo  Song  (c.  1250) ;  Alysoun;  Springtime, 
etc.  (c.  1300). 

References:  See  the  introduction  to  Manly's  English  Poetns;  Ten  Brink,  pp. 
153-156;  139-143;  187-275;  Cambridge  I.  chapters  ix,  xi,  xvi.  On  versification, 
Cambridge  ch.  xviii.  See  also  Schofield,  pp.  34-46;  349-373  (chronicles) ;  96-98; 
110-139  (French  works  in  England) ;  374^17  (religious  works) ;  418-434  (didactic 
works);  435-450  (lyrics);  Courthope,  I.  chapter  iv;  Jusserand,  I.  chapters  iii 
and  iv. 


20 

III.     The  Romances 

1.  Origin  and  character:  The  romances  arose  in  the  twelfth  century, 
in  France  (chief  writer,  Chretien  de  Troyes);  differed  from  the 
older  epic  poetry  (Beowulf,  Song  of  Roland)  in  that  they  were 
designed  to  be  read,  not  sung;  were  courtly,  not  heroic;  stressed 
the  refinemeois  and  casuistry  of  love;  appealed  to  a  feminine 
audience. 

2.  Subject  matter:  According  to  Jean  Bodel,  there  were  three 
"matters":  of  France,  of  Britain,  and  of  Rome  the  Great.  This 
last  included  romances  of  Thebes,  Troy,  Alexander,  Aeneas. 
The  French  court  poets  not  only  made  use  of  their  own  legendary 
material  (Charlemagne,  Roland,  etc.)  but  borrowed  from  every 
source  and  in  many  cases  sent  back  this  borrowed  material  in 
highly  developed  literary  form. 

3.  The  Arthurian  Romances. 

(a)  Development  from  the  beginnings  to  Chretien. 

{a')  In  certain  chronicles  of  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  Arthur  named  as  a  leader  of  the  Britons  in 
the  contest  with  the  Saxon  invaders. 
{h')  In  the  Celtic  traditions,  Arthur  and  his  knights, 
Gwalchmi  (Gawain),  Kai,  and  Bedwyr,  had  super- 
natural powers  and  were  heroes  of  magical  adventures. 
Most  notable  of  these  stories  is  Kilhwch  and  Olicen 
(one  of  the  so-called  Mahinogi;  see  abstract  in  Cam- 
bridge I.  pp.  282-284,  or  in  the  reprint  of  the  Mabi- 
nogion  in  Everyman's  Librar}-). 

(c')  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (tAvelfth  century).  His 
account  of  Arthur  really  a  prose  romance  of  Arthur 
and  Merlin,  telling  of  Arthur's  birth,  his  conquest  of 
the  Saxons,  his  marriage  with  Guinevere,  his  exploits 
as  a  world  conqueror,  the  treachery  of  ]\Iodred,  and 
his  death. 

{d')  Later  chronicles,  based  on  Geoffrey,  by  Wace  and 
Layamon,  make  Arthur  the  ideal  British  hero,  stress 
the  fairy  element,  introduce  the  Round  Table,  and 


22 

amplify  the  account  of  Arthur's  death  and  the  prophecy 
of  his  return. 

(e')  In  France,  Chretien  de  Troyes  (twelfth  century) 
and  his  followers  make  the  story  pure  romance.  In 
this  stage,  Arthur  becomes  less  important  and  the 
main  interest  centers  in  the  adventures  of  ''the  greatest 
knight  in  the  world"  an  honor  held  successively  by 
Gawain,  Lancelot,  Perceval,  Galahad.  Certain  ele- 
ments -are  'also  added  to  the  original  story,  such  as 
the  Lancelot  cj^le;  the  Quest  for  the  Grail;  the  Tris- 
tram cycle.  Each  of  these  becomes  the  nucleus  of  a 
new  group  of  romances,  developed  by  various  writers 
and  at  great  length. 
(b)  Arthurian  romances  in  English. 

(a')  Redactions  of  romances  taken  from  the  cycles, 
chiefly  about  certain  favorite  knights  (Lancelot, 
Gawain,  etc.),  and  less  courtly  than  the  French  orig- 
inals. 

{b')  More  independent  versions,  in  which  various 
chivalric  incidents  are  united  with  popular  traditions. 
Most  notable  of  these 'is  the  fourteenth  century  Ga- 
wayne  and  the  Green  Knight  (see  the  abstract  in  Scho- 
field  pp.  215-217,  or  Miss  Weston's  translation),  which 
is  noteworthy  for  its  complex  stanza  and  use  of  allitera- 
tion, its  descriptions  of  nature,  and  the  spirit  and 
rapidity  of  the  narration. 

(c')  The  alliterative  Morte  Arthure,  fourteenth  century, 
a  remarkable  poem  which  combines  the  old  stories  of 
Arthur's  expedition  against  Rome  with  the  account  of 
his  death  made  familiar  by  Malory. 
{d')  In  some  of  the  popular  ballads  are  various  Arthu- 
rian legends. 
References:  Schofield,   pp.   14.5-;il9;   Cambridge,   I.   pp.    270-307    (Arthurian 

Legend);  308-356  (other  romances);  Jusserand,  I.  pp.  344-351;  Ten  lirink,  pp. 

225-204. 


24 

GEOFFREY  CHAUCER 

I.     Life  (c.  1340-1400).     Main  points  to  remember: 

1.  London  born  and  bred;  exerted  important  influence  in  making 
London  English  the  standard  Uterary  language  as  against  the 
Northern  dialect  used  in  such  important  contemporary  works  as 
Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight,  The  Pearl,  and  the  York  and 
Towneley  INIysteries. 

2.  The  first  English  author  about  whose  life  and  works  we  have 
reasonably  full  knowledge;  earlier  literature  was  usually  anony- 
mous or  written  by  men  of  whom  we  know  little  beyond  their 
names. 

3.  His  relation  to  patronage:  Closely  connected  with  John  of 
Gaunt  and  with  the  Court;  sent  on  diplomatic  missions  to  Italy, 
France  and  Flanders;  connected  with  the  customs  service  for 
many  years;  member  of  Parliament  for  Kent;  recipient  of  royal 
pensions.  Compare  the  Anglo-Saxon  scop  and  also  the  clerics 
who  wrote  so  much  of  the  literature  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  early 
Middle  English  times. 

4.  His  relations  to  foreign  literature:  he  did  nmch  to  render  Eng- 
land famiUar  with  the  love  allegory  then  popular  in  France,  and 
also  imitated  many  French  lyrical  forms;  he  reflected  the  new 
movement  in  Italy,  led  by  Boccaccio  and  Petrarch,  and  thus  antici- 
pated in  several  important  respects  the  English  renaissance. 

5.  His  relations  to  medieval  literature.     See  examples  below. 


26 

II.     His  principal  works 

1.  Early  works 

(a)  The  Romance  of  the  Rose.  An  allegorical  poem  written 
in  France  in  the  xiii  century  which  exerted  prodigious  in- 
fluence on  French  and  English  literature;  it  is  an  excellent 
example  of  love  allegory.  We  know  that  Chaucer  made  a 
translation  of  at  least  part  of  thispoem;  itisuncertainwhether 
the  Middle  English  version  now  extant  is  his;  probably  the 
first  1700  lines  are  his. 

(h)  Book  of  the  Duchess.  Based  upon  a  French  poem  by 
Froissart,  but  altered  to  refer  to  the  death  of  Blanch,  wife  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  Chaucer's  patron,  in  1369  and  probably 
written  at  about  that  time. 

(c)  Various  lyrics,  showing  Chaucer's  familiarity  with  French 
lyric  poets  of  his  time. 

2.  Middle  Period.  From  his  study  and  imitation  of  French  poets 
Chaucer  turned  to  the  Italians. 

(a)  The  House  of  Fame  (c.  1379).     An  allegorical  poem  tell- 
ing how  Chaucer  visited,  under  conduct  of  an  eagle,  the 
House  of  Fame.     Main  influences  Dante  and  Virgil. 
(6)  Parliament  of  Fowls  (c.  1382).     Shows  influence  of  Dante 
and  Boccaccio;  also  of  French  allegorv.     Refers  to  marriage 
of  Richard  II  and  Anne  of  Bohemia. ! 

3.  The  climax  of  his  genius. 

_  (a)  Troilus  and  Criseyde  (c.  1383).  Based  on  the  Filos- 
trato  of  Boccaccio,  partly  a  literal  translation,  but  with  im- 
portant additions  and  changes.  Remarkable  for  its  dramatic 
insight  into  character  and  its  admirable  plot.  To  be  com- 
pared with  Shakspere. 
{h)  The  Canterbury  Tales. 

4.  Minor  works.  These  include  many  lyrics,  and  also  the  prose 
translation  of  Boethius  and  the  (prose)  treatise  on  the  Astrolabe. 
(Two  of  the  Canterbury  Tales  are  also  in  prose:  The  Parson's 
Tale  and  Chaucer's  Tale  of  Melibeus). 


28 

III.     The  Canterbury  Tales 

1.  Relations  to  similar  collections  of  tales.  The  literary  form  is 
Oriental  in  origin;  cf.  Severi  Wise  Masters,  Fables  of  Bidpai, 
Arabian  Nights.     Cf.  also  Boccaccio's  Decameron. 

2.  The  plan  of  the  work  is  outlined  in  the  Prologue,  written  about 
1387;  of  the  120  tales  projected  but  24  were  written,  and  some 
of  these  are  unfinished. 

3.  Classification  of  the  Tales.  Into  the  framework  projected 
in  the  Prologue,  Chaucer  placed  work  that  he  had  already  written, 
with  or  without  revision,  and  also  new  work.  Since,  however,  the 
work  is  incomplete  and  not  all  the  connecting  links  were  written 
to  show  the  order  in  which  Chaucer  intended  the  Tales  to  appear, 
the  best  method  of  classification  is  to  consider  the  subject  matter. 

*  (a)   Stories  mainly   medieval  in  character.     Examples  are 

The  Monk's  Tale  (medieval  "tragedy" — stories  of  great 
men  fallen  on  evil  days) ;  Nun's  Priest's  Tale  (beast  fable  and 
medieval  sermon);  Man  of  Law  (saint's  legend).  Here  also 
should  be  placed  tales  of  the  fabUau  type,  such  as  those  told 
by  the  Pardoner,  the  Friar,  the  Reeve,  etc. 
(6)  Tales  based  on  the  Romances.  Examples  are  the  stories 
of  the  Wife  of  Bath  (Arthurian) ;  Knight  (Italian  chivalric 
romance — Boccaccio's  Teseide) ;  Chaucer's  tale  of  Sir  Thopas 
(burlesque  of  the  bad  romances) ;  Squire's  Tale. 
(c)  Classical,  such  as  the  Physician's  Tale  (Appius  and 
Virginia.) 


30 

Studies 

1.  Read  the  Prologue,  noting 

(a)  The  verse.     Scan  some  of  it,  paying  attention  to  the  syllabic  e; 
note  the  character  of  the  couplet. 

(6)  The  portraits.  Memorize  some  of  the  striking  bits  of  charac- 
terization. Try  to  discover  what  gives  the  extraordinary  vividness 
to  these  character  sketches.  Compare  Addison's  Coverley  Papers. 
With  the  portrait  of  the  Parson  compare  Goldsmith's  Deserted 
Village. 
(c)  The  style. 

2.  Read  the  Nun's  Priest's  Tale,  noting  characterization,  humor,  satire, 

character  of  Chaucer's  learning  and  his  attitude  toward  the  science 
of  his  time,  sermon  and  beast  fable  elements.  Cf.  Aesop,  and 
Chantecler. 

References:  Cambridge,  II.  179-224;  Courthope,  I.  247-301;  Jusserand,  I. 
267-343.  The  Chaucer  Primer  (Pollard)  is  a  convenient  brief  manual; 
somewhat  larger  is  the  biography  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series  (Ward). 
The  Poetry  of  Chaucer,  by  R.  K.  Root,  contains  some  of  the  important  conclu- 
sions of  recent  research,  presented  in  popular  form.  Coulton's  Chaucer  and  His 
England  and  Jusserand's  English  Wayfaring  Life  contain  supplementary  material 
of  great  interest  and  value.  Somewhat  more  special  are  the  three  volumes  by 
Professor  Lounsbury,  Studies  in  Chaucer;  the  chapters  on  "The  Chaucer  Legend" 
and  ''The  Learning  of  Chaucer"  are  the  most  important. 


32 
Chaucer's  Contemporaries 

I.     Piers  the  Plowman 

1.  An  alliterative  poem  of  the  period  1362-1398  in  three  extant 
versions : 

(a)  The  "A-text,"  in  twelve  passus  (cantos)  besides  the  pro- 
logue; 2567  lines;  contains  the  Vision  of  Lady  Meed  (satire  on 
the  corruptions  in  church  and  state) ;  the  Vision  of  Piers  the 
Plowman  (the  search  for  Saint  Truth,  led  by  Piers,  contain- 
ing much  satire  of  social  conditions,  idleness,  etc.);  and  the 
Vision  of  Do-well,  Do-better,  and  Do-best  (less  allegory; 
more  debate). 

(6)  The  "B-text"  repeats  most  of  this  material,  though  with 
many  variations  in  detail,  and  adds  nine  passus;  total  length 
7242  lines. 

(c)  The  "C-text,"  containing  7357  lines,  makes  still  other 
changes  and  additions. 

2.  Authorship  long  ascribed  to  a  William  Langland  or  Langley: 
Professor  IManly  has  recently  proved  it  to  be  of  composite  author- 
ship. 

n.     John  Gower  (c.  1325-1408) 

Confessio  Amantis,  his  chief  English  work,  was  written  1386- 
1390,  and  contains  something  over  one  hundred  stories  set  in  a 
framework.  Lover  wanders  in  wood  in  May  and  is  made  by  Venus 
to  confess  to  his  sins  against  love;  this  confession  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  medieval  idea  of  the  seven  deadly  sins,  with  the  sub- 
divisions; the  Confessor  (Genius)  tells  stories  illustrating  each  sin. 
Thus  allegory  of  the  French  type  (cf.  Legend  of  Good  Womeii), 
but  more  elaborate,  and  interrupted  by  many  digressions,  mainly 
didactic.  Also  illustrates  tendency  to  apply  theological  method 
and  matter  to  the  ''religion"  of  love;  cf.  Chaucer. 


34 

in.     Scottish  Literature 

1.  The  Fourteenth  Century 

(a)  John  Barbour,  The  Bruce,  romance  in  form  of  chronicle. 

(b)  BUnd  Harry's  Chronicle.  Main  interest  in  its  account  of 
Wallace. 

(c)  Various  romances,  e.  g.  Golagros  and  Gawane,  Adventures 
of  Arthur,  Morte  Arthure. 

2.  Chaucerian  school  in  Scotland,  fifteenth  century 

(a)  King  James  I  (?)  The  Kingis  Quair  (The  King's  Book); 
like  the  Romance  oj  the  Rose,  a  dream  allegory  dealing  with 
the  uncertainty  of  Fortune  and  the  happiness  of  love. 
Many  reminiscences  of  Chaucer's  phrasing  and  language, 
and  fuller  literary  appreciation  of  Chaucer  than  is  shown  by 
many  of  the  imitators. 

(6)  Robert  Henryson  wrote  a  version  of  Aesop  (thirteen 
fables,  marked  by  freshness  of  treatment);  Testament  of 
Cresseid  (continues  Chaucer's  story  by  supplying  sequel  to 
Diomede  episode,  with  a  tragic  conclusion);  Robene  and 
Makyne  (pastoral  in  form  of  debate;  cf.  Nut  Brown  Maide). 

(c)  William  Dunbar  (c.  1460-c.  1530)  was  a  less  sympathetic 
imitator  of  Chaucer;  his  Golden  Targe  a  dream  allegory  of 
love;  Thrissil  and  the  Rois,  refers  to  the  marriage  of  James 
IV;  dream  poem;  cf.  Parliament  of  Fowls;  wrote  also  various 
satirical  poems,  the  best  of  them  the  Dance  of  the  Seven 
Deadly  Sins,  and  some  ballads. 

(d)  Gavin  Douglas  (1475-1522)  wrote  the  Palice  of  Honour, 
dream  allegory,  over-elaborate  and  didactic,  in  which  lover 
is  arrested  for  poem  against  love,  is  tried  by  Venus,  etc. 
Douglas  also  translated  twelve  books  of  the  Aeneid. 


36 

IV.     English  Imitators  of  Chaucer 

1.  John  Lj'dgate  (c.   1370-c.   1450).     Enormous  production,  on 
great  variety  of  subjects;  noted  for  extremely  crabbed  verse. 
Chief  works: 

(a)  The  Troy  Book,  30,000  lines,  based  on  Guido  delle  Colonne. 

(b)  Falls  of  Princes,  from  Boccaccio's  De  Casibus   Virorum, 
similar  to  Monk's  Tale,  but  in  36,000  lines. 

(c)  Temple  of  Glass.     A  love  allegory. 

(d)  Pilgrimage  of  Man. 

(e)  The  Assembly,  of  Gods.    An  allegory  of  the  \dces  and  the 
virtues. 

2.  Thomas  Occleve  (c.  1368-c.  1450)  wrote  the  Regiment  of  Princes 
giving  counsel  to  rulers  and  incidentally  containing  some  noble 
lines  in  praise  of  Chaucer. 

3.  Poems  attributed  to  Chaucer  but  by  unknown  authors. 

(a)  The  Plowman's  Tale,  an  application  of  fable  material  to 

religious  controversy. 

(6)  The  Flower  and  the  Leaf.     Translated  by  Dryden. 

(c)  The  Assembly  of  Ladies. 

(d)  The  Court  of  Love. 

4.  Stephen  Hawes  (c.  1475-c.  1523) 

The  Passetyme  of  Pleasure,  an  allegory  dealing  with  a  favo- 
rite theme,   the  marriage  of  Wit  and    Science.      Graunde 
Amour,  attended  by  the  knights  Truth,  Constancy,  Fidelity, 
Fortitude,  etc.,  has  many  chivalric  adventures  in  his  wooing 
of   La   Belle   Pucell.      The   poem   unites   many   scholastic 
elements,  such  as  the  central  theme  and  the  instruction  of  the 
knight  by  the  seven  liberal  arts,  with  Chaucerian  love  alle- 
gory and  chivalric  romance.      Thus  it  marks  the  transition 
from  the  love  allegory  of  Chaucer  to  the  moral  allegory  of 
Spenser.      The  Example  of  Virtue,  also  by  Hawes,  contains 
similar  moral  allegory. 
References:  On  Piers  Plowman  the  best  chapter  is  that  by  Professor  Manly 
in  Cambridge,  II.  1-48;  other  references  are  Jusserand,  I.  373-402;  Courthope 
I.  200-246.     On  Cower  see  Caml)ridse,  II.  153-178;  Jusserand  I.  364-372;  Court- 
hope,  I.  302-321.     On  the  Scottish  Chaucerians  Cambridge,  II.  115-152  and  272- 
302;  Jusserand,  I.  503-512.     On  the  English  Chaucerians,  Cambridge  II.  225- 
271;  Courthope  1.  321-340  and  356-392;  Jusserand  I.  495-502. 


38 
LATER   MIDDLE  ENGLISH  PROSE 

I.     Sir  Thomas  Malory  (c.  1400-1471) 

I.  Morte  d'Arthur.     Published  by  Caxton,  1485. 

(a)  Source.  Caxton  says  the  book  was  given  him  by  Malory, 
who  "dyd  take  oute  of  certeyn  bookes  of  frensshe  and  re- 
duced it  in  to  Englysshe."  It  has  been  shown  that  IMalory's 
originals  were  about  ten  times  as  long  as  his  own  romance. 
(6)  No  central  theme,  except  that  Arthur  is  more  prominent 
than  in  the  French  romances.  Malory  evidently  picked, 
from  a  great  mass,  those  stories  that  pleased  him  best,  ap- 
parently aiming  to  give,  after  a  fashion,  an  account  of  the 
king  from  his  birth  to  his  death.  Note,  that  here  we 
find  what  approximates  an  epic  view. 

(c)  Contents:  Books  I.-III.  Arthur's  birth;  his  relations  to 
Merlin;  his  marriage.  Books  IV,  V,  Merlin;  and  the  wars. 
Books  VI,  VII,  Lancelot ;  Gareth.  Books  VIII-X,  Tristram. 
Books  XI -XVII,  Lancelot;  Galahad;  The  Grail.  Books 
XVIII,  XIX,  Lancelot  and  Guinevere.  Books  XX,  XXI, 
last  daj^s  and  death  of  Arthur. 

(d)  Style.  Lack  of  paragraph  and  sentence  structure  and 
frequent  blunders  in  syntax;  yet  courtly,  simple,  free  from 
affectation,  fresh  in  diction,  picturesque  in  expression. 

Studies: 

1.  Find  illustrations  of  vivid  description,  rapid  narration. 

2.  Study  the  sources  of  the  vocabulary  of  a  few  paragraphs. 

3.  Compare  the  style  with  that  of  Addison  or  Macaulay. 

4.  Study  the  differences  between  Malory's  ethical  point  of  view  and 

Tennyson's,    for   example,    the    Lancelot-Guinevere   story   or   the 
attitude  toward  the  search  for  the  Grail. 

5.  Study  the  parallel  between  the  accounts  of  Arthur's  death  given  by 

Malory  and  Tennyson. 


40 

n.     other  Fifteenth  century  prose 

1.  William  Caxton  (c.  1421-1491) 

(a)  Recuyell  of  the  Histories  of  Troy,  translated  from  the 
French  and  printed  by  Caxton  at  Bruges  in  1475,  the  first 
printed  book  in  English. 

(5)  Dides  and  Seyings  of  the  Philosophers,  printed  in  1477  at 
his  press  near  Westminster. 

(c)  About  seventy  books  printed  by  him,  some  of  them  trans- 
lations from  the  French,  about  one  third  of  these  his  own 
translations;  most  important  of  these  The  Golden  Legend. 
Of  the  English  books,  the  most  notable  are  editions  of  Chaucer 
and  Gow-er.  Books  not  written  by  him  (such  as  Malory's 
Morte)  were  carefully  edited  and  supplied  with  prefaces. 

(d)  Caxton  was  succeeded  by  the  famous  printer  Wynkyn 
de  Worde. 

2.  Lord  Berners.  Famous  for  his  translation  of  Froissart's 
Chronicles  and  for  Huon  of  Bordeaux,  a  romance  very  popular 
in  the  next  century,  notable  for  its  introduction  of  Oberon  as  a 
fairy  king. 

References:  Cambridge  II.  353-386;  Jusserand  II.  26-39.  For  Malory,  the 
selections  edited  by  Professor  Mead  (Ginn  &  Company),  and  the  briefer  selec- 
tions in  the  Riverside  Literature  Series. 


42 

LITERATURE  OF  THE  FOLK 

I.  The  literature  of  the  Middle  English  Period  so  far  considered  falls 
mainly  into  two  classes :  works  written  by  clerics  for  doctrinal  or  didactic 
purposes;  and  courtly  literature  designed  for  the  upper  classes.  Popular 
anecdotes  and  tales  existed  and  sometimes  were  written  down;  in  the 
Canterbury  Tales  are  a  few  examples.  There  were  also  popular  songs, 
often  political  and  satirical.  Fable  literature  is  of  popular  origin.  Of 
popular  origin,  also,  were  the  rude  dramas,  such  as  the  mummer's  plays 
and  the  plays  about  Robin  Hood  and  Saint  George. 

II.  The  Popular  Ballad 

1.  ''A  tale  telling  itself  in  song,"  thus  narrative,  impersonal, 
lyrical;  origin  among  the  folk  and  sometimes  composed  by  the 
folk;  transmitted  by  oral  tradition,  perhaps  for  centuries. 

2.  Something  over  three  hundred  extant,  but  of  these  only  eleven 
in  MSS  older  than  the  xvii  century.  Date  of  copying  or  printing, 
however,  not  significant  of  the  age  of  the  ballad.  Most  of  those 
extant  probably  belong,  in  origin,  to  the  Middle  English  period. 
:Most  important  collections:  (a)  The  Percy  MS  of  1650,  which 
is  the  source  of  (6)  Percy's  Reliques  (1765);  (c)  Scott's  Border 
Minstrelsy;  (d)  Professor  Child's  English  and  Scottish  Popular 
Ballads. 

3.  Characteristics  of  the  ballad 

(a)  In  the  older  ballads,  usually  couplets  with  alternating 
refrain ;  dealing  with  a  single  situation,  all  details  suppressed ; 
incremental  repetition.  Phrase  and  word  accent  also 
significant. 

(b)  Later  ballads  are  longer  and  more  deliberate,  approach- 
ing epic;  the  so-called  ballad  stanza  (quatrains  in  which 
the  first  and  third  lines  have  four  accents,  the  second  and 
fourth  having  three  with  rhyme)  becomes  more  common. 
Refrain  and  repetition  are  less  evident.  For  examples,  see 
especially  the  Robin  Hood  cycle. 


Studies ; 


44 

Themes 

(a)  Riddling  ballads 
(6)  Domestic  tragedy 

(c)  Supernatural  themes 

(d)  Border  ballads 

(e)  Ballads  of  the  greenwood 
(/)  Humorous  ballads 

1.  Find   examples  of   ballads   belonging  to  the  various  classes   noted 

above. 

2.  Sir  Patrick  Spens.     (a)   Note  the  stanza,  the  illustrations  of  change 

in  word  accent,  the  conventional  expressions.  (6)  Find  instances 
of  incremental  repetition,  (c)  What  illustrations  of  popular  super- 
stition ?  (d)  Considering  it  as  a  narrative,  observe  the  situation, 
the  characters,  the  selection  of  details,  the  omission  of  details  that 
in  a  romance  or  short  story  would  be  included.  What  gives  the 
ballad  its  great  power  as  a  piece  of  dramatic  narrative?  (e)  Observe 
the  coronach  element  and  compare  the  coronach  in  the  Lady  of 
the  Lake. 

3.  Lord  Randal,     (a)  In  form,  is  this  more  or  less  primitive  than  Sir 

Patrick  Spens?  (6)  Compare  the  two  in  stanza,  repetition,  and 
selection  of  details. 

4.  Study  several  ballads  dealing  with  the  supernatural,  such  as  Thomas 

Rymer,  The  Wife  of  Usher's  Well,  and  The  Daemon  Lover,  and  ob- 
serve (a)  the  differences  in  theme,  method  of  dealing  with  the  super- 
natural, sources  of  material,  and  effectiveness;  and  (6)  differences 
between  them  and  such  an  imitation  of  the  supernatural  ballad  as 
Coleridge's  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner. 

5.  The   Nut  Brown  Maide  (c.   1500)   is  sometimes  called  a  ballad,  but 

wrongly.  Show  the  differences  between  it  and  the  true  ballad  (a) 
in  the  evidences  of  conscious  literary  art;  (6)  in  the  form  (stanza, 
rhyme,  diction) ;  (c)  in  the  differences  between  the  repetition  found 
in  it  and  true  ballad  repetition;  {d)  in  the  debate  element,  on  which 
compare  Owl  and  the  Nightingale,  The  Body  and  the  Soul,  etc.; 
(e)  in  the  amount  and  character  of  incident. 


46 

References:  The  best  brief  introduction  to  ballad  literature,  by  the  leading 
authority  on  the  subject,  is  the  chapter  on  ballads  in  the  Cambridge  History 
II.  449-474  (Gummere).  See  also  ProfCvSsor  Gummere's  edition  of  selected  bal- 
lads, with  the  introduction  (Ginn  &  Company).  More  complete  discussion  is  to 
be  found  in  the  same  author's  The  Popular  Ballad  (Houghton,  Mifflin  Company). 
A  convenient  and  inexpensive  book  of  selections  is  published  in  the  Riverside 
Literature  Series;  this  contains  an  excellent  brief  introduction.  The  Cambridge 
edition  of  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads  (Houghton)  gives  practically  the 
whole  body  of  ballad  literature,  with  an  authoritative  introduction  by  Professor 
Kittredge. 


48 
THE   RENAISSANCE 

I.     Changes  influencing  the  Literature  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 

1.  In  language:  such  as  (a)  changes  in  pronunciation  due  for  ex- 
ample to  the  dropping  of  final  e  as  a  separately  sounded  syllable; 
metrical  regularity  of  Chaucer's  verse  no  longer  appreciated; 
(b)  the  consequent  breaking  down  of  old  metrical  standards  and 
the  introduction  of  freakish  forms  ("Poulter's  measure";  "Skel- 
tonic"  verse,  etc.)-  Later  in  the  century,  the  attempt  to  adapt 
classical  quantitative  verse  to  English  (The  Areopagus,  etc.). 

2.  In  thought:  such  as  (a)  the  new  nationalism,  due  to  the  political 
changes  made  by  Henry  ^TII  and  EHzabeth;  (b)  the  revival  of 
interest  in  the  classics  (Humanism)  which  had  been  almost  un- 
known in  the  Middle  Ages;  (c)  cosmopolitanism,  due  to  travel; 
the  influence  of  Italy  and  France,  reflected  in  Chaucer,  again 
becomes  prominent. 

3.  In  literary  themes:  such  as  the  introduction  of  the  sonnet  and 
other  forms  of  subjective  literature;  the  pastoral;  the  new  theory 
of  the  epic;  the  novel;  the  essay;  the  drama. 

n.     Early  Humanism  in  England 

1.  Humphrey  of  Gloucester   (1391-1447) 

2.  Colet  (1466-1519)  and  Erasmus  (1465-1536) 

3.  Sir  Thomas  More  (1478-1535) 

(a)     Utopia    (Latin  version,    1516;   English   translation  by 
Ralph  Robinson,  1551) 

4.  Early  translations  from  the  classics 

(a)  Phaer's  Aeneid  (1558-1562).     Two  books  of  the  Aeneid 
also  translated  by  Surrey,  in  blank  verse. 
(6)  Seneca  was  translated  by  Jasper  Heywood  and  others, 
1581. 

(c)  North's  Plutarch  (1579)  was  famous  for  its  influence  on 
Shakspere. 


50 

III.     Transitional  Poetry  of  the  Early  Sixteenth  Century 

1.  John  Skelton  (c.  1460-1529) 

(a)  Author  of  various  translations  and  adaptations  of  human- 
istic works. 

(b)  Influenced  by  Chaucer  in  Garlande  of  Laurell,  a  medley 
of  all  sorts  of  material,  but  in  lively  metre;  and  in  the  more 
important  Bowge  of  Courte,  an  allegory  owing  something  to 
Chaucer,  something  to  the  ''ship"  allegory  of  Brant  and 
Barclay. 

(c)  Phillyp  Sparowe,  a  story  of  the  death  and  burial  of  a  pet 
sparrow;  travesty,  incoherent  structure,  "Skeltonic"  verse. 
Written  to  please  a  patron. 

(d)  Colyn  Clout,  a  satire  of  the  clergy  from  the  point  of  view 
of  a  layman. 

(e)  Why  come  ye  nat  to  courte?  a  bitter  ijivective  against 
Wolsey. 

(/)  Magnyfycence,  a  morality  plaj^  but  with  probably  direct 
application  to  political  matters. 

(g)  Skelton's  verse  is  usually  written  in  two-accent  lines, 
irregular  in  unaccented  syllables,  and  with  rhj^mes  rambling 
through  any  number  of  lines. 

2.  Alexander  Barclay  (c.  1475-1552) 

(a)  The  Ship  of  Fools  (1509)  a  translation,  with  many  addi- 
tions, of  the  Narrenschiff  of  Sebastian  Brant;  satire  of  all 
sorts  of  folly,  shown  by  women,  clerics,  beggars  and  vaga- 
bonds; full  of  classical  and  biblical  allusionsand  many  proverbs; 
scurrilous;  vivid  picture  of  contemporary  life;  shows  inter- 
relation of  Germany  and  England  in  early  sixteenth  century. 
(6)  Eclogues  (c.  1514).  Five  pastoral  eclogues  translated 
from  Alantuan  and  Aeneas  Sylvius  but  with  manj^  additions 
and  a])plications  to  local  conditions;  they  treat  of  miseries 
of  court  and  the  superiority  of  country  life,  and  the  sad 
state  of  poets.  Important  as  being  the  first  examples  of 
Renaissance  pastoral  in  English,  and  have  the  characteristic 
satire  veiled  by  allegory;  they  are  racy,  homely,  vivid. 


52 

IV.     The  Mirror  for  Magistrates 

I.  Combines  medieval  and  renaissance  elements 

(a)  Written  by  various  men,  1555  ff. ;  a  series  of  medieval 
"tragedies"  similar  to  Chaucer's  Monk's  Tale  and  Boccaccio's 
De  Casihus  Virormri;  immediate  model  Lydgate's  Fall  of 
Princes  and  first  planned  as  a  re-issue  and  continuation  of 
that  work. 

(6)  Great  popularity  throughout  the  century,  and  particu- 
larly influential  on  the  drama,  thirty  historical  plays  being 
extant  which  are  based  on  stories  told  in  the  Mirror. 
(c)  Chief  importance  due  to  the  Induction  written  1563  by 
Thomas  Sackville  (who  also  collaborated  with  Norton  in 
writing  Gorhoduc  [acted  1562]  a  Senecan  tragedy  in  blank 
verse);  this  Induction,  influenced  by  Chaucer  and  Virgil, 
and  perhaps  by  Dante,  notable  for  its  allegory,  its  grave 
and  musical  verse,  and  its  direct  influence  on  Spenser. 
V.     Tottel's  Miscellany  (1557) 

I.  A  collection  of  nearly  three  hundred  poems  by  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  (1503-1542),  the  Earl  of  Surrey  (c.  1517-1547),  and  others. 
These  poems  are  mainly  (a)  sonnets  in  imitation  of  Petrarch; 
(6)  other  amoristic  lyrics,  introducing,  with  the  sonnets,  a  new 
code  of  courtly  "love";  (c)  satires,  epistles,  epigrams,  showing 
the  influence  of  the  classics  but  dealing  with  certain  conventional 
subjects,  such  as  the  superiority  of  the  country  to  the  town  and 
the  hardships  of  the  courtier's  life;  a  few,  such  as  Wyatt's  The 
Mean  and  Sure  Estate,  showing  the  influence  of  Chaucer.  By 
far  the  greater  number  are  amoristic,  and  are  written  in  the  most 
diverse  metrical  forms. 


54 

VI.      George  Gascoigne  (c.  1525-1577) 

1.  A  poet  of  moderate  genius  whose  importance  springs  from  the 
way  in  which  he  anticipated  many  of  the  hterary  activities  of  the 
Ehzabethan  period. 

2.  Representative  works 

(a)  Dramatic  writings:   The  Supposes,  a  comedy  acted  in 
1566,  based  upon  a  comedy  by  Ariosto;  Jocasta,  acted  1566, 
a  tragedy  of  the  Senecan  type. 
,  (6)  Certayne   Notes  of  Instruction,  1575,  the  first  important 
'^  work  of  Uterary  criticism  in  EngUsh. 

(c)  The  Posies,  1575,  a  collection  of  poems,  mainly  lyrical, 
on  many  subjects  and  in  many  forms. 

(d)  The  Steel  Glass,  1576,  a  satire  based  on  a  comparison 
between  the  old  steel  mirrors,  representing  the  superior 
moral  and  manners  of  an  earlier  age,  and  the  crystal  mirrors 
then  coming  into  fashion,  by  which  he  symbolizes  the 
corruption  and  follies  of  his  age.  Somewhat  in  the  manner 
of  Piers  Plowman. 

References:  On  the  changes  in  language,  etc.,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  see 
Cambridge,  III.  499-530.  On  the  general  character  of  the  Renaissance,  see 
Jusserand,  II.  3-25;  40-92;  134-149,  and  in  his  Novel  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare, 
chapter  ii;  Einstein,  Italian  Renaissance  in  England,  chapters  ii  and  viii.  For 
Humanism,  see  Cambridge  Modern  History,  I.  chapter  vi;  Courthope,  II.  chap- 
ter i;  Cambridge,  III.  1-27;  Jusserand,  II.  76-92.  For  Tottel's  Miscellany,  see 
Jusserand  II.  134-148;  Cambridge  III.  187-206;  Courthope,  II.  chapters  ii  and 
iii;  and  the  introduction  to  Padelford's  Sixteenth  Century  Lyrics  (Heath  &  Com- 
pany). For  Gascoigne:  Cambridge,  III.  227-238;  Courthope,  II.  167-177.  A 
selection  from  the  Steel  Glass  is  to  be  found  in  Skeat's  Specifnens-  of  English 
Literature,  1394-1579,  pp.  312-325.  This  book  may  also  be  consulted  for  its 
selections  from  other  transitional  authors  from  Chaucer  to  Spenser. 


56 
THE   NEW  ENGLISH   POETRY 

I.     The  Influence  of  Italy  and  France 

1.  Italian  writers  important  for  their  influence  on  English  liter- 
ature in  the  sixteenth  century, 

(a)  Petrarch  (1304-1374)  His  Bime,  or  Sonetti  e  canzoni 
in  vita  di  Madonna  Laura,  a  cycle  of  207  sonnets,  inter- 
spersed with  various  other  short  lyrics,  treating  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  lover,  the  cruelty  of  his  mistress,  the  lofty  in- 
fluence of  love,  the  whole  given  the  form  of  a  cycle  through 
references  to  the  passing  of  time  and  to  incidents  of  his 
courtship.  These  sonnets  exerted  great  influence  in  France 
and  England  through  their  form,  their  phraseology,  and  the 
Neo-Platonic  theory  of  love. 

(6)  Ariosto  {Orlando  Furioso,  1516)  and  Tasso  {Gerusalemme 
Liber aia,  1575)  were  writers  of  epic  poetry  whose  works  pro- 
foundly influenced  Spenser. 

(c)  The  writers  of  novelle,  short  stories  usually  of  a  tragic 
cast,  which  formed  the  basis  for  the  many  English  collec- 
tions of  short  stories  and  also  served  as  storehouses  of  plot 
for  the  dramas. 

2.  The  influence  of  France  felt  mainly  through  the  critical  theories 
of  the  Pleiade,  through  the  pastorals  of  Marot  and  others,  and 
through  the  sonnets  and  other  lyrics  of  Ronsard,  Du  Bellay, 
Desportes. 


^X.: 


^     J^  e 


58 

II.     The  Sonnet 

1.  Origin.  Arose  in  Italy  near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century; 
practiced  by  Dante,  Michelangelo,  Tasso,  Ariosto,  and  Petrarch. 
At  first,  however,  the  name  was  applied  to  any  short  amoristic 
lyric,  and  a  similar  confusion  persisted  in  England  even  in  Shaks- 
pere's  time.  Rossetti's  translation  of  the  New  Life  of  Dante 
will  illustrate  early  sonnet  forms  and  aims.  Chaucer  translated 
one  of  Petrarch's  sonnets  in  his  Troilus,  Book  I.  11.  400-420. 

2.  Form. 

(a)  True  Italian  type.  Fourteen  lines,  the  first  eight  con- 
stituting the  octave,  which  introduces  the  theme,  and  the 
last  six  the  sestet,  which  is  sub-divided  into  two  tercets. 
The  first  tercet  prepares  the  leading  idea  or  theme  of  the 
octave  for  the  conclusion  in  the  second  tercet,  See  Words- 
•  worth's  sonnet  on  Milton  for  a  fairly  close  imitation  of  this 
form.  The  rhyme  scheme  of  the  octave  is  abba,  abba; 
less  accurately,  abba,  a  c  c  a;  of  the  sestet,  c  d  e,  c  d  e; 
or  c  d  c  d  c  d;  or  c  d  c  d  e  e. 

(6)  English  forms  in  the  sixteenth  century  fall  under  two 
main  classes:  the  Shaksperean,  consisting  of  three  quatrains 
rhyming  alternately,  and  a  concluding  couplet;  and  the 
Spenserian,  somewhat  like  the  stanza  of  the  Faerie  Queene, 
ab  ab,  b  cb  c  ,  c  d  c  d  ,  e  e.  Milton's  sonnets  are  correct 
in  rhyme,  but  often  careless  of  the  distinction  between  oc- 
tave and  sestet. 
3.  English  sonnet  cycles  of  the  sixteenth  century 

(a)  Wyatt,. Surrey,  Gascoigne,  Watson,  wrote  many  sonnets 
before  the  time  of  the  great  cycles;  Tottel's  collection  of 
songs  and  sonnets  was  reprinted  seven  times  by  1587; 
Shakspere  introduced  three  sonnets  into  Lovers  Labour's 
Lust  and  two  in  Romeo  and  Juliet;  chief  vogue  of  the  genre 
from  1591  to  1597,  in  which  period  the  French  writers  were 
drawn  upon  fjuite  as  much  as  the  Italian. 
(/;)  T\u\  chief  cycles:  Sidney,  Astrophcl  and  Stella,  1591, 
platonic   courtship   of   Lady   Penelope   Rich,    108   sonnets, 


60 

based  on  Petrarch,  Ronsard,  and  Desportes;  Daniel,  Delia, 
1592,  mainly  French,  some  of  them  of  high  literary  value; 
Constable,  Diana,  1592,  1594;  Barnes,  Parihenophil  and 
Partheno'pe,  1593;  Watson,  Tears  of  Fancie,  1593;  Giles 
Fletcher  the  Elder,  Licia,  1593,  frankly  confessed  to  be 
literary  exercises;  Lodge,  Phillis,  1593;  Drayton,  Idea, 
1594;  Spenser,  Amoretti,  1595,.  but  some  of  them  perhaps 
written  at  a  much  earlier  date,  in  their  present  form  repre- 
senting his  courtship  of  Elizabeth  Boyle,  whom  he  married; 
Shakspere,  Sonnets,  ca.  1594,  which  differ  from  the  other 
cycles  in  that  some  of  them  are  addressed  to  a  man  and 
others  show  distaste  for  the  conventions  of  the  genre. 
(c)  Total  number  of  amoristic  sonnets  written  during  this 
period  estimated  at  1200;  in  addition,  about  500  addressed 
to  patrons  and  as  many  on  philosophical  and  religious 
themes. 
Studies 

1.  Conventionalities  in  diction  and  ttopes,  such  as  the   similes  of  the 

ship,  the  warrior,  etc.,  and  in  the  narrative  element,  "the  prologue, 
hope,  and  the  epilogue,  despair." 

2.  The  idealistic  view  of  love.     This  form  of  Elizabethan  Platonism 

especially  prominent  in  the  sonnets  of  Sidney  and  of  Spenser.  For 
the  complete  statement  of  the  religion  of  beauty,  see  Spenser's 
Four  Hymns. 

3.  The  problem  of  Shakspere's  sonnets.     Besides  the  reference   given 

above  to  Lee,  the  introductions  to  the  editions  of  the  sonnets  by 
Beeching  and  by  Rolfe  may  be  used. 

References:  On  the  general  character  of  the  sonnet  and  the  history  of  its'form, 
consult  Alden,  English  Verse,  pp.  267-297,  and  Corson,  Primer  of  English  Verse, 
pp.  143-185.  On  the  Elizabethan  sonnet,  see  Cambridge  111.  281-310  (Lee); 
Jusserand,  II.  383^19.  A  more  d  tai.ed  count  of  the  cycles  is  in  Lee's  Life 
of  Shakespeare,  s.  v.  the  sonnets  and  also  in  the  appendix.  For  the  Italian  in- 
fluence, consult  Einstein,  The  Italian  Renaissance  in  England,  and  for  the  French, 
Lee,  The  French  Renaissance  in  England,  and  Upham,  French  Influence  in  English 
Literature. 


62 

m.    The  Pastoral 

1.  Classical  pastorals 

(a)  Theocritus  (280  B.C.).  His  Idyls  marked  by  reahsm  and 
by  introduction  of  themes  afterwards  characteristic  of  the 
genrCj  such  as  the  singing  match,  dirge,  love-lay,  etc.  No 
allegory  or  veiled  satire. 

{h)  Virgil's  Eclogues  are  less  realistic  and  introduce  allusions 
to  life  of  the  times. 

2.  Italian  Group 

(a)  Petrarch  wrote  twelve  Latin  eclogues  1346-1356;  these 

have  strong  political   allegory.     His  eclogues  imitated   by 

Boccaccio. 

(6)  Mantuan    (1448-1516)    wrote   a   series   of   pastorals   in 

which  the  satire  of  church  and  state  is  more  pronounced. 

Some  of  these  translated  into  English  by  Barclay. 

{d)  Sannazaro's    Arcadia,    1490-1495;    consists    of    twelve 

eclogues  comiected  by  passages  in  lyrical  prose;  the  most 

striking  theme  is  the   praise  of  Arcadia  as  a  refuge  from 

the  town.     Compare  Sidney's  romance,  and  As  You  Like  It. 

3.  French  Group 

(a)  Of  the  poets  who  wrote  pastorals  in  France  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  Marot  is  important  for  the  influence  he 
exerted  on  Spenser. 

4.  English  predecessors  of  Spenser 

(a)  Barclay  translated  some  of  Mantuan's  eclogues  ca.  1514. 
(6)  Googe  in  1563  wrote  eight  eclogues  loosely  connected 
by  two  narratives  running  through  them,  realistic  in  style 
and  homely  in  metre,  moral  in  intention, 
(c)  There  were  some  pastoral  elements  in  the  other  poetry 
of  the  period,  as  in  Tottel;  Chaucer  was  also  regarded  as 
a  pastoral  poet  by  Spenser  and  others. 


■64 

5.  Spenser's  Shepheards  Calender,  1579.  Twelve  eclogues,  some- 
what loosely  connected  by  the  motif  of  the  seasons,  one  being 
assigned  to  each  month,  and  by  the  romance  of  Colin  (Spenser) 
and  Rosalind.  Five  of  the  eclogues  deal  with  religious  and  politi- 
cal conditions,  and  are  native  rather  than  foreign  in  source  and 
model.  The  others  imitate  conventional  pastoral  themes,  such 
as  the  singing  match,  the  praise  of  the  poet's  patron,  the  dirge, 
the  complaint  of  unrequited  love.  In  freshness,  lyric  power, 
and  thought  the  Calender  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in 
English  poetry. 
Studies 

1.  The    most  notable  eclogues  of    the  Shepheards  Calendar  are  those 

for  'February'  (religious  allegory;  fable  of  the  oak  and  the  briar, 
told  in  what  was  thought  to  be  the  style  of  Chaucer  and  in  a  four 
stress  verse  which  roughly  imitates  the  way  Chaucer's  verse  must 
have  sounded  as  pronounced  in  Spenser's  time);  'April'  (Song  in 
praise  of  Elizabeth);  'October'  (the  perfect  poet). 

2.  Study  the  versification  of 'February.' 

3.  The   eclogues   for   'September,'    'October'    and    'November'    contain 

ideas  and  phrases  echoed  by  Milton  in  Lycidas. 

References:  A  convenient  introduction  to  the  pastorals  is  to  be  found  in  Pro- 
fessor Herford's  edition  of  the  Shepheards  Calendar;  see  also  the  introduction  to 
English  Pastorals,  edited  by  E.  K.  Chambers;  Morley,  English  Writers,  IX. 
35-58;  Jusserand,  II.  455-472;  Cambridge,  III.  247-269;  Courthope,  II.  242- 
245,  252-256;  Church,  Life  of  Spenser,  chapter  ii.  The  Idyls  of  Theocritus  have 
been  translated  by  A.  Lang  and  others;  Virgil's  Eclogues  appear  in  translation 
in  Everyman^ s  Library. 


66 

IV.    Other  Lyric  Poetry 

1.  The  Ehzabethan  Anthologies  were  ahuost  as  popular  and  as 
numerous  as  the  sonnet  cycles;  they  were  composed  of  short  poems 
collected  from  the  works  of  well-known  poets  or  extracted  from 
song-books,  novels,  and  dramas.     Chief  examples: 

(a)    TotteVs  Miscellany  (1557) 

{h)  Paradise    of   Dainty    Devices    (1576).     Themes    largely 

moral;  reprinted  eight  times  by  1600. 

(c)  Gorgeous  Gallery  of  Gallant  Inventions  (1578) 

{d)  A  Handfull  of  Pleasant  Delights  (1584) 

(e)   The  Phoenix's  Nest  (1593) 

(/)   England's   Helicon  (1600) 

(g)   The  Passionate  Pilgrim  (1599).     Ascribed  to  Shakspere. 

(h)  Poetical  Rhapsody  (1602) 

2.  A  group  of  narrative  poems,  strongly  lyrical  in  method,  based 
on  classical  sources:  Shakspere's  Venus  and  Adonis  (1593)  and 
The  Rape  of  Lucrece  (1594);  and  Marlowe's  Hero  and  Leander 
(published  1598). 

Studies 

1.  Compare  the  Elizabethan  song  lyric  with  the  popular  ballad  in  stanza, 

use  of  refrain,  evidences  of  conscious  literary  art,  theme. 

2.  The  place  of  the  lyric  in  the  dramas  and  romances  of  the  time. 

3.  The  Elizabethan  Song  Books. 

References:  The  best  introduction  to  the  lyrics  of  the  Elizabethan  period  is 
to  be  found  in  Schelling's  Elizabethan  Lyrics  or  in  Carpenter's  English  Lyric 
Poetry.  See  also  Cambridge  IV.  127-146.  On  the  general  characteristics  of 
lyric  poetry,  see  Gummere,  Handbook  of  Poetics,  pp.  40-57. 


68 
EDMUND   SPENSER    (1552-1599) 

I.     Early  Works 

1.  While  a  student  at  Cambridge  contributed  some  translations 
from  Du  Bellay  to  a  miscellany,  Theatre  for  Worldlings  (1569). 

2.  In  London  in  the  service  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  1578-1580. 
Here  published  (1579)  the  Shepheards  Calender,  which,  among 
other  elements,  contained  a  warning  to  the  Puritans  of  the  danger 
to  England  in  the  alliance  between  Rome  and  Philip  of  Spain. 
Also  wrote  Mother  Hubberds  Tale,  a  beast  fable  in  the  manner  of 
Chaucer,  warning  Leicester  to  prevent  the  proposed  marriage 
between  Elizabeth  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou.  For  his  boldness, 
Spenser  sent  to  Ireland,  1580,  as  the  secretary  of  Lord  Grey,  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  there  except  for  two  visits  to  London. 

II.     The  Faerie  Queene 

1.  Planned  in  imitation  of  Ariosto  as  early  as  1579  and  written 
in  part,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  finallj'- 
published.  First  three  books  brought  by  Spenser  to  London 
1589  and  published  1590;  the  next  three  published  1596,  though 
completed  two  years  earlier.  In  1609  two  additional  cantos  in 
the  same  stanza  but  not  otherwise  closely  related  to  the  epic. 

2.  Plan 

(a)  Virgil,  regarded  in  the  Renaissance  as  the  ideal  poet, 
was  thought  not  only  to  have  written  the  history  of  the 
founding  of  Rome  but  also  to  have  presented  in  the  form  of 
allegory  a  view  of  the  state  and  a  portrait  of  the  ideal  man. 
Thus  Spenser,  passing  like  Virgil  from  pastoral  to  epic, 
planned  an  epic  that  should  deal  with  the  early  history  of 
Britain,  should  shadow  forth  the  ideal  man,  and  i)resent  a 
theory  of  the  state. 

(6)  The  details  of  the  plan  of  the  epic  are  given  in  the  letter 
to  Raleigh  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  1590.  There  were  to 
be  twelve  books,  each  of  them  devoted  to  the  adventures  of 
a  knight  ropresontjng  a  cardinal  virtue.  Unity  was  to  be 
given  through  the  person  of  Arthur  representing  Alagnifi- 


i 


70 

cence  in  twF  moral  allegory,  Leicester  in  the  political  allegory, 
and  EiidLud  in  the  conception  of  the  State.  Gloriana,  the 
'Faerie^Jiicone',  represents  Elizabeth.  But  the  allegory, 
after  th^ fashion  of  the  time,  is  very  complex;  for  example, 
Elizabf^  is  represented  not  only  as  Gloriana  but  also  as 
Britomart  and  Mercilla. 
Contents.  ^ 

(a)  Boofly.  The  Red  Cross  Knight,  accompanied  by  Una, 
slays  the  Dragon.  Moral  allegory:  Holiness  guided  by  Truth 
overcomes  Error.  Political  allegory:  the  events  of  the 
English  Reformation. 

(6)  Book  II.  The  adventures  of  Guyon  and  Arthur,  leading 
to  the  defence  of  Alma  and  the  overthrow  of  Acrasia.  Moral 
allegory:  the  course  of  Temperance  through  life,  avoiding 
extremes  of  gloom  or  of  false  joy,  avoiding  wrath  and  vio- 
lent passion,  conquering  desires  for  wealth  and  sensual 
enjoyment.  Political  allegory  less  marked;  the  character- 
istics of  the  English  gentleman  are  represented,  and  his 
patriotism  is  grounded  on  study  of  past  history  of  his  nation. 

(c)  Book  III.  The  adventures  of  Britomart;  her  love  for 
Artegall.  Moral  allegory:  Britomart  represents  chastity. 
Political  allegory:  Britomart  represents  the  Queen  as  Sov- 
ereign, loving  Artegall,  who  stands  for  Justice,  an  attribute 
of  sovereignty.  Many  of  the  incidents  refer  to  social  and 
political  affairs  at  court. 

(d)  Book  IV.  No  dominating  knight  in  this  book  but  a 
series  of  adventures  representing  the  various  aspects  of  love. 
Cainbell  and  Triamond  represent  friendship  between  men; 
Britomart  and  Amoret,  that  between  women ;  the  love  stories 
of  Britomart  and  Amoret  are  continued. 

(e)  Book  V.  Artegall  saves  Irena;  Arthur  goes  to  defend 
Belgae;  Ducssa  is  tried  and  executed.  The  moral  allegory 
deals  with  the  virtue  of  Justice  presented  under  various 
forms.  The  political  element  deals  with  the  function  of  jus- 
tice in  tlu^  state  and  concretely  with  the  problem  of  Ireland. 


72 

(/)  Book  VI.  The  quest  for  the  Blatant  Beast  by  Calidore. 
Moral  allegory:  Calidore  represents  courtesy;  the  Beast 
is  Scandal.  Political  allegory:  reference  to  the  damage 
done  to  England  by  the  detraction  visited  upon  Lord  Grey 
and  others  in  spite  of  their  service  to  the  state;  Sidney  the 
personification  of  Courtesy. 

{g)  Book  VII  (?)     Two  cantos  of  ^Mutability  and  the  danger 
it  brings  the  state;  perhaps  a  reference  to  the  course  of  Eng- 
land in  dealing  with  the  Irish  problem. 
III.     Spenser's  Other  Works. 

1.  Complaints.  A  collection  of  minor  poems  published  in  1591 
but  written  at  various  times.  Most  important  Mother  Hubberds 
Tale  and  Virgils  Gnat. 

2.  Miscellaneous  Pastorals:  Daphnaida  (1591);  Astrophcl,  and 
Colin  Clout  (1595).  Also,  two  marriage  hymns,  Epithalamion 
and  Prothalamion. 

3.  Fowre  Hymnes,  published  1596.  These  present  Spenser's 
philosophy  of  Love  and  Beauty,  his  Xeo-Platonic  creed.  For 
the  Amoretti,  see  p.  59. 

4.  Veue  of  the  Present  State  of  Ireland,  written  1595-1596,  a 
prose  discussion  in  form  of  dialogue,  based  on  ]\Iachiavelli's 
Prince ;  the  prose  counterpart  of  Faerie  Queene  V. 


74 

Studies 

1.  The  Stanza:  observe  its  structure,  the  effect  of  the  rhyme-scheme  and 

the  alexandrine.  (See  Corson,  Primer  of  English  Verse,  pp.  87- 
107;  Alden,  English  Verse,  pp.  102-106).  (b)  The  stanza  as  em- 
ploj^ed  by  subsequent,  poets.  For  a  list  of  such  i-mitations  see 
Corson,  pp.  108-142.  (c)  Find  stanzas  remarkable  for  pictorial 
quality,  sensuous  charm,  etc. 

2.  Compare  Spenser's  use  of  simile  with  that  of  Milton  in  Paradise  Lost. 

His  diction. 

3.  Study  the  plot  construction  of  the  first  book  of  the  Faerie  Queene. 

Is  the  book  successful  as  narrative? 

4.  Study  the  characterization  in  the  same  book;  the  character-groups, 

the  different  allegorical  types,  etc. 

5.  Compare  Spenser's  use  of  Arthurian  romance  material  with  Tenny- 

son's.    Compare  the  two  poets  as  to  use  of  allegory.     Compare, 
Spenser's  ajlf  gr>ry  with  Chancer'.s.     With  Bunyan's. 

6.  Note  the  main  principles  of  Spenser's  religion  of  beauty. 

References:  The  best  biography  of  Spenser  is  that  contributed  by  Professor 
Fletcher  to  the  Encyclopedia  Americana.  For  criticism,  see  Lowell's  essay  on 
Spenser  and  the  brilliant  though  unfair  account  in  Jusserand  III.  473-509. 
Courthope's  chapter  in  Cambridge  III.  259-272  contains  much  excellent  criticism 
together  with  some  inaccuracies  in  detail. 


76 

THE   DRAMA 

I.     The  Origin  of  the  English  Drama 
I.  The  Religious  Drama 

(«)  Origin  in  the  trope,  a  text  for  a  special  day,  introduced 
in  the  musical  service  of  the  Mass.  Some  of  these  were 
dramatic  in  character,  especially  those  for  Easter  and  Christ- 
mas; they  date  from  about  the  ninth  century.  An  excellent 
example  of  the  trope  is  the  Easter  Quern  Quaeritis,  which  may 
be  found  in  translation  in  Manly's  Pre-Shaksperean  Drama, 
I.  xix,  or  in  Early  Plays  (Riverside  Literature  Series),  pp.  2  ff. 
(6)  By  the  thirteenth  century,  rude  dramas  had  developed 
about  the  sepulcher  (Easter)  and  the  manger  (Christmas); 
these  expanded  into  groups  of  scenes;  a  third  group  formed 
by  the  introduction  of  scenes  from  the  Old  Testament  sup- 
posed to  prophesy  the  coming  of  Messiah.  All  this  develop- 
ment within  the  church. 

(c)  Third  stage  of  development  shown  in  transfer  to  the 
guilds,  to  be  presented  by  them  outside  the  church.  Ver- 
nacular took  the  place  of  the  Latin ;  more  realistic  treatment 
of  incidents,  especially  those  that  were  extra-biblical;  in- 
troduction of  comedy  scenes ;  development  of  character  types, 
such  as  Herod,  Pilate,  Noah's  wife. 

(d)  The  English  Cycles.  Of  the  hundreds  of  plays  pro- 
duced in  England  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, four  fairly  complete  cycles  are  extant:  The  York, 
containing  48  pageants;  Towneley  or  Wakefield,  32  pageants; 
the  so-called  Coventry  cycle,  with  43;  and  the  Chester  cycle, 
with  25.  These  usually  presented  on  Corpus  Christi  Day, 
elaborate  in  staging  and  detail,  the  cycles  covering  the  main 
events  from  the  Creation  to  the  Day  of  Doom,  the  chief 
stress  being  upon  the  periods  from  the  Creation  to  the  Flood; 
the  life  of  Christ,  with  the  Ascension,  and  the  early  Apostolic 
age.  These  plays  originally  called  "mysteries"  (Fr.  mystere) 
because  presented  by  the  guilds.  Also  a  few  "miracles" 
or  dramatized  legends  about  saints. 


78 

2.  Moralities 

(a)  These  dramatized  moral  allegories  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  due  to  the  great  popularity  of  allegory. 
(6)  Themes :  reUgious  and  moral  instruction ;  religious  polem- 
ics; later,  plays  showing  the  value  of  learning.  Examples: 
The  Castle  of  Perseverance,  Everyman,  Hycke  Scorner,  Nyce 
Wanton. 

(c)  Bale's  Kynge  Johann  (ca.  1538)  in.troduces  historical 
characters  along  with  allegorical  abstractions,  but  the  play 
deals  with  religious  controversy  of  the  time  and  is  not 
properly  chronicle  history. 

3.  Interludes 

•  (a)  Origin  uncertain  and  strict  definition  difficult;  object 
entertainment  rather  than  instruction,  thus  deals  with  real- 
istic comedy.  An  early  example  of  high  dramatic  merit  in 
the  Second  Shepherd's  play  of  the  Towneley  religious 
cycle. 

(b)  John  Heywood  (c.  1497-c.  1577)  wrote  many  interludes, 
e.  g.,  Weather;  Love;  Four  PP;  Johan  Johan;etc. 

4.  Folk  Plays 

(a)  Certain  folk  customs  and  festivals  contain  dramatic 
elements,  some  of  them  of  great  age:  Hock  Tuesday  Play; 
Sword  Dance,  etc.,  are  examples. 

(6)  Somewhat  later  are  numerous  plays  dealing  with  St. 
George,  Robin  Hood,  etc.  Some  of  these  still  survive  as 
mummer's  plays  in  parts  of  England.  See  the  interesting 
account  of  the  Christmas  mummer's  play  in  Hardy's  novel. 
The  Return  of  the  Native.  Further  material  on  the  subject 
of  folk  customs  and  plays  may  be  found  in  Chambers' 
The  Mediaeval  Stage,  volume  II. 


80 

Studies 

1.  The  best  illustration  of  the  dramatic  version  of  biblical  story  is  to 

be  found  in  the  Brome  play  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Reprinted 
in  Early  Plays,  R.L.S.,  and  in  Manly.)  Study  the  way  in  which 
the  author  enters  into  sympathy  with  the  main  characters;  his  sense 
of  the  tragedy;  the  force  of  the  climax;  the  realism  of  treatment  and 
independence  of  slavish  following  of  his  source.  For  extra-biblical 
material,  see  one  of  the  Noah  plays,  broad  farce,  or  the  far  superior 
Shepherds  Play  {Early  Plays;  Manly).  Study  plot  construction  of 
the  latter;  characterization;  realism, 

2.  Everyman  and  Nice  Wanton  should  be  studied  among  the  moralities, 

as  to  plot,  characterization,  management  of  allegory. 

References:  Text  of  early  plays  may  be  had  in  convenient  form  in  the  volume 
Early  Plays  in  the  Riverside  Literature  Series;  see  also  Manly,  The  Pre-Shaks- 
perean  Drama,  volume  I.;  Pollard,  English  Mystery  Plays,  etc.,  which  also  contains 
an  extended  introduction.  A  volume  in  Everyman's  Library  is  also  devoted  to 
texts.  For  discussion,  sec  Cambridge,  V.  40-68  (The  Religious  Drama)  and  pp. 
26-39  (Folk  Plays).  The  English  Religious  Drama,  by  K.  L.  Bates,  contains 
much  interesting  material  on  methods  of  presentation,  costumes,  acting,  etc. 
See  also  Ward's  English  Dramatic  Literature,  I.  1-157,  and  Jusserand,  I.  439- 
494. 


82 

n.     The  Period  of  Transition 
I.  Early  tragedy 

(a)  Tragic  elements  in  the  rehgious  drama,  such  as  the 
Brome  Abraham  play,  the  drastic  realism  of  the  Crucifixion. 
(6)  Senecan  tragedy.  The  ten  tragedies  ascribed  to  Seneca 
(first  century)  were  popular  through  the  ^Middle  Ages  for 
their  philosophy  and  oratorical  quality;  they  were  not 
acted,  however.  In  the  Renaissance  many  translations 
and  imitations  were  put  on  the  stage;  English  translation 
in  1581;  imitations  adopted  the  five  act  division,  were 
tragedies  of  blood,  not  character,  were  highly  rhetorical, 
made  use  of  chorus,  and  gave  the  stage  such  stock  charac- 
ters as  the  ghost,  the  tyrant,  the  confidant,  etc.  Gorboduc, 
by  Sackville  and  Norton,  acted  1562,  based  on  early  English 
history,  but  in  Senecan  style;  purpose  didactic,  dealing 
with  problem  of  Queen's  marriage;  blank  verse.  Jocasta, 
by  Gascoigne,  1566,  from  Italian  version  of  tragedy  by 
Euripides;  blank  verse.  The  Misfortunes  of  Arthur,  by 
Thomas  Hughes,  acted  1588,  based  on  Geoffrey  and  Malory, 
but  Senecan  style ;  blank  verse. 

(c)  Other  early  tragedies,  important  for  relations  to  Shaks- 
pere,  were  The  Troublesome  Raigne  of  King  John  and  The 
True  Chronicle  History  of  King  Leir. 


84 

2.  Early  Comedy 

(a)  Comedy  elements  were  present  in  the  religious  plays^ 
notably  in  the  Noah  plays,  the  shepherds'  plays,  etc.  Note 
also  the  interludes. 

(h)  Neo-classical  group.  One  form  of  these  plays  origi- 
nated in  Germany,  aimed  at  reproducing  the  wit  and  senten- 
tiousness  of  Plautus  and  Terence  but  with  a  moral  aim; 
usually  variations  of  the  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son;  examples 
in  the  Acolastus  of  William  Gnaphaeus  and  the  anti-papal 
Pammachius  of  Thomas  Kirchmayer.  These  translated 
and  imitated  in  English  school  dramas;  notable  example 
in  Gascoigne's  Glasse  of  Government.  Nicholas  Udall,  a 
schoolmaster,  adapted  Roman  comedy  to  English;  his 
Ralph  Roister  Doister,  ca.  1553,  the  first  true  English  comedy 
having  structure  and  complicated  plot;  imitates  Plautus 
in  inspiration  and  form.  Gammer  Gurtons  Nedle,  ca.  1562, 
by  William  Stevenson  (?),  classical  in  structure  like  other 
college  plays,  but  native  English  farce  in  characters  and  plot. 
Note,  finally,  that  Shakspere  made  use  of  Latin  comedy 
in  his  Comedy  of  Errors. 

(c)  Translations.  Gascoigne's  Supposes,  acted  1566,  a  trans- 
lation from  Ariosto. 

References:  For  texts,  see  Manly's  Specimens  of  the  Pre-Shaksperean  Drama, 
and  the  volume  in  Everyman's  Library.  Gayley's  Representative  English  Come- 
dies contains  specimens  of  the  comedies,  together  with  much  historical  matter. 
For  history  and  criticism,  Cambridge  V.  68-135;  Ward's  English  Dramatic 
Literature,  chapter  ii;  Jusserand  III,  24-35. 


86 

III.     The  New  English  Drama 

1.  John  Lyiy  (1553-1606) 

(a)  First  literary  work,  his  novel  Euphues,  1578. 

(b)  His  plays  usually  presented  by  the  Children's  Companies 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  and  St.  Paul's.  His  themes  usually 
pastoral  or  classical  myth,  often  treating  in  allegory  current 
politics  or  social  affairs  at  court. 

(c)  Chief  comedies:  Endymion,  1579,  an  application  o&  the 
myth  to  the  quarrel  between  Leicester  and  the  Queen; 
Sapho  and  Phao,  ca.  1582,  also  allegorical;  Campaspe, 
printed  1584,  classical  story  of  Alexander,  Campaspe,  and 
Apelles.  Pastoral  elements  added  in  Gallathea,  printed  1592, 
and  Love's  Metamorphosis,  printed  1601.  Mother  Bomhie, 
printed  1594,  deals  with  mistaken  identity,  like  Plautus, 
and  has  less  Euphuism  and  more  farce  than  usual  in  Lyly. 
Woman  in  the  Moone,  printed  1597,  is  in  blank  verse. 

{d)  The  significance  of  Lyly  as  a  dramatist  rests  upon  his 
stressing  of  the  comedy  of  wit  rather  than  situation,  thus 
producing  high  comedy  as  against  the  older  farce;  his  in- 
troduction of  the  lighter  aspecfs  of  love;  his  symmetrical 
grouping  of  characters;  his  use  of  prose;  the  introduction 
of  lyrics  into  the  plays;  his  attention  to  style.  In  all  these 
respects  he  influenced  Shakspere. 

2.  Christopher  Marlowe  (1564-r593) 

(a)  Romantic  tragedies:  Tamburlaine,  in  two  parts,  1587- 
1588,  a  study  of  the  thirst  for  universal  political  dominion; 
Doctor  Faustus,  1588,-  an  adaptation  of  the  Faust  legend 
from  contemporary  German  accounts,  a  study  of  the  thirst 
for  intellectual  greatness;  The  Jew  of  Malta,  1589,  dealing 
with  the  thirst  for  universal  wealth. 

(b)  Chronicle  History:  Edward  the  Second,  ca.  1592;  not  the 
primitive  type  of  chronicle  play,  since  its  material  is  selected 
and  the  theme  is  fairly  unified,  leading  to  a  tragic  close. 
Influenced  Shakspere's  Richard  II;  Marlowe's  influence  also 
apparent  in  Richard  III. 


88 

-^  (c)  The  significance  of  Marlowe  consists  in  his  estabhshing, 
by  the  great  popularity  of  his  plays  as  well  as  the  skill  of 
his  versification,  blank  verse  as  the  form  of  Elizabethan 
tragedy;  in  his  study  of  the  individualism,  the  virtu,  so 
characteristic  of  the  Renaissance;  in  the  epic  and  lyric 
qualities  of  his  work. 

Thomas  Kyd  (1558-1594) 

(a)  Important  for  his  use  of  the  Revenge  Tragedy,  character- 
ized by  introduction  of  ghost  seeking  revenge;  madness; 
play  within  the  play;  much  bloodshed;  strongly  reminiscent 
of  Seneca.     Compare  Hamlet. 

(6)  His  chief  plaj^s  The  Spanish  Tragedy,  acted  1586,  and 
the   Ur- Hamlet,  acted  1588. 

George  Peele  (1558-1598) 

(a)  His  plays  significant  for  skill  in  use  of  words  and  rich, 
often  ironical,  humor;  they  blend  romanc^e  with  realism, 
and  show  true  love  of  nature  and  simple  country  life. 
(6)  Chief  plays:  The  Arraignment  of  Paris,  published  1584; 
The  Old  Wives  Tale,  ca.  1590,  which  contains  a  version  of 
the  story  of  Comus  and  much  folk-lore;  David  and  Bethsabe, 
printed  1599,  a  romantic  version  of  the  biblical  stor>'. 

Robert  Greene  (1558-1592) 

(a)  Significant  for  his  lyrics  and  for  his  contributions  to 
prose  fiction  {Pandosto,  etc.)  and  to  pamphleteering  as  well 
as  for  his  dramas.  Plays  filled  with  love  of  nature  and  in- 
teresting for  use  of  Italian  romantic  story,  realism  of  Eng- 
lish setting,  admirable  characterization. 
(6)  Representative  dramas:  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay, 
printed  1594,  introduces  much  folk-lore,  shows  popular 
interest  in  necromancy  (cf.  Fausius),  and  presents  romantic 
story.  James  the  Fourth,  licensed  1594,  introduces  Oberon 
in  a  prose  induction,  contains  highly  romantic  story  for 
main  plot,  with  masque  elements;  excellent  example  of  mix- 
ture of  serious  plot  with  comedy. 


90 

Studies 

1.  Lyly's  Campaspe  is  the  best  of  his  plays  for  a  study  of  his  romantic 

comedy  with  serious  main  plot  and  comic  sub-plot.  Observe  the 
three  groups  of  characters,  the  slightness  of  story,  the  failure  to 
realize  the  dramatic  crisis,  the  dialogue,  the  songs. 

2.  Marlowe:  (a)    Tamburlaine  may  be  studied  for  its  versification,  its 

weakness  in  characterization,  its  repetition  of  incident,  its  epic 
qualities.  (&)  Doctor  Faiistus  is  far  more  dramatic  in  its  introduc- 
tion and  conclusion,  but  breaks  down  in  intervening  scenes.  Why 
is  this  so?  Compare  other  versions  of  the  legend,  (c)  Edward  the 
Second:  The  dramatic  problem  involved  in  changing  our  view  of 
the  King;  the  selection  of  material  to  give  unity  to  the  plot;  the 
advance  over  Taynhurlaine  in  ch'aracterization  (cf.  Isabel-Zenocrate; 
Edward-Tamburlaine) ;  yet  the  failure  to  render  with  effectiveness 
the  dramatist's  conceptions  of  character  and  the  frequently  awk- 
ward exposition. 

3.  Greene's  James  the  Fourth  may  be  studied  for  its  relation  to  Shaks- 

pere's  romantic  comedy  and  its  introduction  of  some  of  the  situ- 
ations used  by  Shakspere.  Note  also  the  abundance  of  story  sup- 
plied by  the  two  plots,  the  large  number  of  characters,  the  grouping 
of  characters,  the  pseudo-historical  element. 

References:  For  Lyly,  see  Cambridge  V.  13G-144;  Ward,  History  of  English 
Dramatic  Literature,  I.  270-303.  Campaspe  is  printed  by  Manly,  volume  II. 
273-326,  and  in  Gayley,  Representative  English  Comedies,  with  a  critical  essay  by 
Professor  Baker,  I.  263-332.  For  Marlowe,  Cambridge  V.  160-176;  Jusserand 
III.  133-148;  Ward,  Histonj  etc.,  I.  313-363.  A  convenient  text  of  Marlowe's 
plays  is  published  in  Everyman's  Library.  For  Kyd,  Peele,  Greene,  see  Cam- 
bridge V.  144-155,  176-185;  Ward,  History  etc.,  I.  270-409;  Jusserand  III.  121- 
133.  Greene's  Ja7nes  the  Fourth,  Peele's  David  and  Bethsabe,  and  Kyd's  Spanish 
Tragedy  are  in  Manly,  II.  Peele's  Old  Wives'  Tale  and  Greene's  Friar  Bacon  are 
in  Gayley  I.     See  also  Everyman's  Library. 


92 

IV.     WiUiam  Shakspere  (1564-1616) 

I.  Development  as  a  writer  of  comedies 

(a)  The  period  of  experiment,  1589-1591.  To  this  belong 
The  Comedy  of  Errors,  a  comedy  of  situation,  not  charac- 
ter, based  on  the  Menechmi  of  Plautus  and  thus  related 
to  the  Latin  school  drama;  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  with  ap- 
parently original  plot,  but  like  Lyly  in  slightness  of  story, 
stress  of  witty  dialogue,  symmetrical  grouping  of  characters, 
and  affectation  in  style;  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  based 
in  part  on  Montemayor's  Diana  and,  in  the  denouement, 
on  the  popular  story  of  male  friendship,  Titus  and  Gysippus, 
the  play  being  a  first  study  in  romantic  comedy  with  serious 
main  plot  and  humorous  subordinate  characters. 
(6)  The  period  of  transition,  1595-1598.  Here  belong  the 
fairy  play  of  Midsummer- Night' s  Dream;  the  romantic 
story  combined  with  a  study  of  character  which  verges  on 
tragedy  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice;  and  the  development 
of  farce-comedy  seen  in  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew  and  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor.  Of  these,  the  Shrew  and  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  owe  something  to  earlier  English  plays, 
while  the  Dream  and  the  Merry  Wives  are,  in  the  main  plot, 
more  original. 

(c)  The  triumph  of  romantic  comedy,  1599-1600.  Here 
belong  Much  Ado  about  Nothing  (partly  based  on  a  novel 
of  Bandello's),  in  which  the  serious  plot  (Hero-Claudio) 
comes  very  near  tragedy,  being  relieved  only  by  the  slight- 
ness of  stress,  the  greater  emphasis  on  the  Benedick-Beatrice 
story,  and  the  masque-like  close;  As  You  Like  It  (a  pretty 
close  dramatization  of  Lodge's  Rosalynde),  which  shows 
the  influence  of  pastoral  and  sonnet  literature,  made  real 
through  the  skill  in  characterization;  Twelfth  Night  (based 
mainly  on  Belief orest  through  the  tale  of  Apolonius  and  Silla 
in  Barnabe  Riche  his  Farewell  to  the  Militarie  Profession) ; 
most  admirable  of  the  comedies  in  plot  construction  and 
expositimi. 


94 

Studies  in  Shakspere's  Comedies 

1.  Luvc^a  Labour  s  Lost  may  be  compared  with  Lyly's  Campaspe  as  to 

character,  plot,  and  style.  Where  does  the  dramatic  climax  come? 
Criticize  the  fifth  act.     Does  the  dialogue  characterize? 

2.  Two  Gentlemen   of    Verona:  What   is  the   main   theme?     How  long 

does  it  take  the  dramatist  to  get  the  situation  fully  before  us? 
Account  for  the  extraordinary  denouement.  Note  parallels  in  situ- 
ation and  character  between  it  and  later  plays. 

3.  Midsummer- Night' s    Dream:    Study    the    relations    between    plots. 

Account  fo'r  the  slightness  of  the  story  of  the  lovers.  Compare 
the  "fairies"  with  Spenser's  conception  in  the  FaerieQueene. 

4.  Merchant  of   Venice:  Here,   again,  study  the  plot-relations.     Is  the 

title  justifiable?  Would  "Shylock"  be  more  accurate?  Or  is  the 
Bassanio-Portia  story  the  main  unifying  influence?  Function  of 
the  Lorenzo-Jessica  story?  What  is  Shakspere's  attitude  toward 
Shylock? 

5.  Much  Ado:  Account  for  the  indistinct  characterization  of  Hero  and 

Claudio  and  the  improbable  denouement.     How  is  the  Benedick- 
Beatrice  story  brought  into  relation  with  it?     Which  constitutes 
»  the  main  plot?     How  much  incident  is  there  in  the   Benedick- 

Beatrice  story?     How  is  this  story  made  prominent,  and  why? 

6.  As  You  Like  It:  Compare  the  first  act  with  the  corresponding  portion 

of  Lodge's  novel.  What  reflections  of  the  sonnet  ideal  of  love  re- 
main in  the  play?  Function  of  the  Touchstone-Audrey-WiUiam 
story;  is  it  comparable  with  Shakspere's  method  in  other  plays, 
e.g.,  Love's  Labour's  Lost  and  Two  Gentlemen?  Criticize  from  the 
modern  view-point  the  dramatic  effectiveness  or  ineffectiveness 
of  acts  one  and  five. 

7.  Twelfth  Night:  Compare  the  first  act  with  those  of  Two  Gentlemen 

and  As  You  Like  It.  Compare  the  relations  between  the  romantic 
story  and  the  comedy  elements  in  this  play  with  the  method  in 
Shakspere's  other  romantic  comedies.  Compare  the  story  of  Viola 
with  that  of  Julia  {Two  Gentlemen)  as  to  incident,  characterization, 
and  exposition. 


96 

2.  The  Chronicle  History  Group 

'(a)    Henry    VI.     In   three   parts;   about    1592;   very   Httle 

of  the  first  part  by  Shakspere.  Represents  primitive  type 
of  chronicle  play,  history  dramatized  en  bloc. 

(b)  Historical  plays  having  a  tendency  toward  tragedy: 
Richard  III  (159.3),  a  play  in  Marlowe's  manner,  strongly 
centralized  about  the  Machiavellian  character  of  Richard; 
hint  of  Nemesis  as  foundation  for  tragedy  at  the  end  (com- 
pare Macbeth) ;  King  John  {ca.  1594)  based  in  part  upon  an 
earlier  play,  and  uncertain  in  effect  through  representation 
of  John  as  both  hero  and  villain;  thus  a  return  in  construction 
to  primitive  unorganized  type,  though  with  the  difference 
that  main  interest  is  in  character,  not  incident.  Richard 
II  {ca.  1594)  based[^nj|olinjhedbut_similar  in  many  respects 
^Marlowe's  Edward  the  Second;  deals  with  closing  events 
in  Richard's  Teign.  hence,  poverty  of  incident  made-up 
by  longjpeeches  of  ^pic  .and  iyricL  quality;Jiiiit-of-tragedy 
of  pity;  besides  Richard's, JfuUJength  portrait  of  Gaunt, 
representing  patriotism  of  England,  is  notable.  (Compare 
Fauiconbridge,  in  John,  and  Henry  V,  for  other  elements 
in  Shakspere's  conception  of  the  ideal  Englishman). 

(c)  The  Henry  V  trilogy  {Henry  IV,  in  two  parts;  Henry  V : 
1597-1599)  presents  Hal  as  prince  and  as  king;  epic  type 
with  strong  admixture  of  reaUstic  comedy;  based  on  old 
English  play. 

Studies  on  the  Historical  Plays 

1.  Note  relations  between  the  group  represented   by  John,  Richard  II, 

Richard  III    and  Shakspere's  later  work  in  tragedy    based    on 
chronicle  history  {Lear,  Macbeth). 

2.  Note  relation  of  the  plays  dealing  with  Henry  V  (a)  to  epic  con- 

ception of  history,  both  in  plot  and  style;  {b)   to  realistic  comedy 
as  apart  from  the  romantic  type. 

3.  Study  the  relation  of  one  of  the  plays  to  the  chronicles  of  Holinshed; 

note  the  general  character  of  the  changes  made  by  Shakspere,  and 
the  effects  of  these  changes. 


98 

The  Tragedies 

(a)  Early  experiments:  Titus  Andronicus  {ca.  1594),  a 
tragedy  of  blood  and  revenge;  crude  in  characterization; 
melodramatic;  not  by  Shakspere,  though  he  revised  it  in 
part.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  printed  in  imperfect  form  in 
1597,  written  some  years  earlier;  plot  drawn  mainly. from 
Romeus  and  Juliet  (by  Arthur  Brooke,  1562)  and  a  version 
of  the  story  in  Painter's  Palace  of  Ple(\sure,  ultimately  an 
Italian  story;  tragedy  of  blood  but  purified  by  story  of 
youthful  love;  lyrical  hke  Ve7ius  and  Adonis. 

(b)  Julius  Caesar  {ca.  1599),  based  mainly  on  North's  trans- 
lation of  Plutarch;  thus  a  play  similar  in  part  to  the  chronicle 
plays,  not  really  classical;  chief  problem  arises  in  the  fact 
that  Caesar  dies  in  act  III  sc.  i  and  what  seems  to  be  remi- 
niscence of  old  revenge  type  of  play  is  introduced  by  his 
ghost;  cf.  Spanish   Tragedy,    Hamlet. 

(c)  Hamlet  (1602),  probably  based  on  an  old  revenge  play, 
perhaps  by  Kyd,  but  the  story  goes  back  to  Saxo  Grammati- 
cus.  A  tragedy  of  blood  and  revenge,  but  these  elements 
made  less  prominent  through  stressing  of  the  philosophical 
element  in  the  play;  little  external  action,  the  tragedy  of 
the  soul  of  Hamlet. 

{d)  Othello  {ca.  1604).  Source  in  a  story  by  Cinthio,  but 
notable  for  manner  in  which  melodramatic  and  sordid  story 
of  lust  and  murder  has  been  elevated;  notable  also  for  absence 
of  comedy  element  save  in  sinister  humor  of  lago,  for  absence 
of  sub-plot,  and  for  marvelous  compactness  and  motivation. 
\j{e)  King  Lear  (1604-1606).  Based  on  old  folk  legend,  told 
also  in  Geoffrey's  Chronicle,  Gesta  Romanorum,  Mirror  for 
Magistrates,  Holinshed,  The  Faerie  Qucene,  etc.,  and  in 
an  old  chronicle  play  of  1594;  underplot  from  Sidney's 
Arcadia;  remarkable  parallelism  between  main  plot  and  the 
story  of  Gloucester  deepens  the  tragedy. 
/  (/)  Macbeth  (1606).  Based  on  Holinshed;  a  tragedy  of 
personal  ambition;  shortest  of  the  great  tragedies. 


100 

(g)    Last    tragedies  of    Shakspere:    Timon   of   Athens    (ca. 
1607);  Antony  and  Cleopatra  (1608);  Coriolanus  {ca.  1609). 
Shakspere 's  Last  Works 

(a)  Comedies  written  during  the  period  of  the  great  tragedies 
and  showing  cynicism  and  disillusion:  Troilus  and  Cressida 
(1602);  widely  known  story  treated  in  original  and  baffling 
manner;  compare  the  version  by  Chaucer.  AlVs  Well  that 
Ends  Well  {ca.  1602) ;  based  on  Painter's  version  of  a  story 
by  Boccaccio.  Measure  for  Measure  (1604);  story  of  Italian 
origin,  through  a  comedy  by  Whetstone. 
(6)  Dramatic  romances:  Pericles,  printed  1608;  not  wholly 
by  Shakspere.  Cijmheline  {ca.  1610);  pseudo-historical 
setting  from  Holinshed;  main  story  widely  known,  and  told 
by  Boccaccio  and  in  Westward  for  Sinelts,  an  EngHsh  mis- 
cellany. Winter's  Tale  (1611);  from  Greene's  romance 
Pandosto;  unites  tragic  story  with  pastoral  romance.  The 
Tempest  (1611);  source  of  main  plot  uncertain;  notable 
for  observance  of  classical  unities  and  skilful  use  of  the 
supernatural. 


102 

Studies 

1.  Study  the  effect  of  emphasis  by  comparing  the  Hero-Claudio  story 

(Much  Ado)  with  the  denouement  of  Romeo  and  Juliet  and  with  the 
story  of  Desdemona. 

2.  Compare  lago  and  Richard  III.     Study  the  relations  of  Othello  with 

its  source,  particularly  in  the  characterization  of  lago,  in  moti- 
vation, and  in  the  denouement.  Note  the  cumulative  effect  of  the 
incidents  and  other  details. 

3.  Study  the  use  of  incident  in  Hamlet;  the  amount  of  it,  the  elements 

drawn  from  the  old  revenge  plays.  The  various  explanations  of 
the  relation  of  Hamlet  s  character  to  the  tragedy,  as  given  in  the 
Variorum  edition  (Furness). 

4.  The  history  of  the  tragedy  of  Lear  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

5.  Contrast  the  fourth  act  of  Macbeth  with  the  other  acts  in  motivation, 

compactness,  style. 

6.  Compare  the  conception  of  tragedy  set  forth  in  Romeo  and  Juliet 

with  that  of  Hamlet,  Lear,  Othello,  Madbeth.  The  relation  of  these 
last  to  the  classical  ideal  of  tragedy. 

7.  Compare  Winter's   Tale  and   The  Tempest  as  to  structure;  Winter's 

Tale  and  Othello  as  to  main  plot;  Winter's  Tale,  Romeo  and  Juliet 
and  Much  Ado  in  denouement. 

8.  Compare   Tempest  and  Midsummer- Night's  Dream  in  use  of  super- 

natural, in  versification,  in  style. 

References:  The  best  brief  biographies  of  Shakspere,  complementary  to  each 
other  in  method  and  view,  are  those  by  Sidney  Lee  and  Walter  Raleigh.  A 
convenient  introduction  to  the  plays  may  be  had  in  Dowden's  Primer  and  in  the 
Introduction  to  Shakspere  by  Professor  MacCracken  and  others.  For  a  discus- 
sion of  Shakspcre's  advance  in  technique,  see  Baker,  The  Development  of  Shaks- 
pere as  a  Dramatist.  See  also  the  larger  histories  of  literature,  especially  Cam- 
bridge for  its  bibliographies,  and  such  criticism  as  in  Dowden,  The  Mind  and  Art 
of  Shakspere.  Convenient  complete  texts  of  the  plays  are  to  be  had  in  the 
single  volume  Cambridge  or  Globe  or  Oxford  editions.  For  sources  and  later 
histories  of  the  plays,  see  the  Variorum  editions  so  far  as  issued.  For  the  Eliza- 
bethan Stage,  see  Jusserand  III.  36-104;  Cambridge  VI.  271-313;  Baker,  36-99; 
and  the  monograph  on  the  Shaksperean  Stage,  by  V.  E.  Albright. 


104 

V.     Dramatists  contemporary  with  Shakspere 

1.  Ben  Jonson  (1573-1637) 

(a)  Represents  a  theory  of  drama  opposed  to  Shakspere's 
in  his  deference  to  classic  models,  his  adherence  to  "rules", 
his  hatred  of  the  romantic  type,  his  carefully  constructed 
plot,   his  simple,   not   complex   characters;   his  method   to 
construct  a  plot  to  fit  his  conception  of  his  characters  rather 
than  to  create  the  characters  to  fit  an  old  plot. 
(6)  Early  comedies  of  the  "humor"  type:   Every  Man  in 
His  Humour,  1598;  Every  Man  out  of  His  Humour,  1599. 
(c)  Later  comedies,  realistic  in  manner,  classical  in  style, 
satirical   in   intent:    Volpone,    1606;    Epicoene,    1609;    The 
Alchemist,  .1610:  Bartholomeio  Fair,  1614. 
{d)   Classical  tragedy:   Sejanus  (1603);  Catiline  (1611). 
(e)  Jonson  also  wrote  many  masques. 

2.  George  Chapman  (1559-1634) 

(a)  Translated  Homer;  wrote  both  comedies,  such  as  The 
Gentleman  Usher  (1606),  and  tragedies,  such  as  Bussy  d'Am- 
bois  (1607)  and  The  Revenge  of  Bussy  d'Ambois  (1613). 

(b)  Style  vivid,  poetic,  imaginative;  plot  romantic  and 
exaggerated;  epic  rather  than  dramatic  in  manner. 

3.  Thomas  Dekker  {ca.  1570-ca.  1641) 

(a)   The    Shoemaker's    Holiday    (1600),    realistic    study    of 

London  life. 

(6)  Old  Fortunatus  (1600),  a  poetic  comedy. 

(c)  Many  other  comedies  notable  for  their  descriptions  of 
London  life. 


106 

4.  Francis    Beaumont    (1584-1616)    and   John   Fletcher    (1579- 

1625) 

(a)  Wrote  many  plays  in  collaboration;  others  individually. 
(6)  Chiefly  significant  for  dramatic  romances  and  tragi- 
comedies, such  as  Philaster  (1608)  and  The  Maid's  Tragedy 
(1609). 

5.  The  End  of  the  Romantic  Drama 

(a)  From  the  death  of  Shakspere  to  the  closing  of  the  thea- 
tres in  1642  the  main  dramatic  tendencies  were  toward  sen- 
sationalism and  theatricality;  stressing  of  the  scene  rather 
than  the  whole  plot;  lowered  moral  tone;  licentiousness 
in  versification.  The  themes  were  mainly  tragedies  or  tragi- 
comedies of  sex-interest  and  comedies  of  manners. 

(b)  John  Webster  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his  Duchess  of 
Maljy  (1616);  John  Ford,  for  his  tragedy  The  Broken  Heart 
(1633);  James  Shirley,  for  his  tragedy  The  Cardinall  (1641), 
the  last  of  the  great  tragedies,  and  for  his  comedies  of  man- 
ners, such  as  Hyde  Park  (1632)  and  The  Lady  of  Pleasure 
(1635). 

References:  All  these  dramatists  are  discussed  in    Cambridge  VI.       See  also 
Ward  II.  296-765;  III.  1-124;  Jusserand  III.  369-463. 


108 

ELIZABETHAN    PROSE 
I.     Prose  Fiction 

1.  The  old  romances  retained  considerable  popularity  during  the 
sixteenth  century,  partly  through  the  revival  of  chivalry.  Malory 
still  read;  other  popular  romances  being  Guy  of  Warwick,  Lancelot, 
Bevis  of  Hampton,  and  the  later  Amadis.  Compare  Faerie  Queene. 
Romances  attacked,  however,  on  the  ground  of  immorality;  most 
Elizabethan  fiction  is  either  really  or  professedly  moral  in  intention ; 
later  in  the  ^entury,  the  Italian  prose  tales  largely  supplanted  them. 

2.  The  collections  of  prose  tales 

(a)  Based  on  the  Italian  novella,  a  short  story  romantic 
in  theme,  but  simple  and  realistic  in  style  and  often  cli- 
mactic in  construction.  Important  for  their  influence  on 
Shakspere  and  other  dramatists. 

(6)  Chief  collections:  William  Painter,  The  Palace  of  Pleas- 
ure, 1566;  G.  Fenton,  Tragical  Discourses,  1567;  Barnahe 
Riche  His  Farewell  to  the  Miliiarie  Profession,  1581. 

3.  The  Novel 

(a)  John  Lyly,  E'ltp/iwes,  1578-1580.  A  short  story  expanded 
by  letters  and  moral  discussions;  style  highly  mannered 
(antithesis,  exaggerated  similes,  intricate  alliteration,  exact 
balance  of  accents). 

(6)  Robert  Greene,  Pandosto,  1588  (influenced  Winter^ s 
Tale) ;  Menaphon,  1589.  Pastoral  romances,  unreal  in  scene 
and  euphuistic  in  style;  filled  with  maxims;  slight  in  charac- 
terization. 

(c)  Thomas  Lodge,  Rosalynde,  1590.  Main  source  of  As 
You  Like  It;  a  pastoral  romance  based  on  the  pseudo- 
Chaucerian  Tale  of  Gamelyn ;  style  a  combination  of  Euphu- 
ism and  Petrarchism;  combines  prose  and  verse;  best  of  the 
Elizabethan  romances. 

(d)  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Arcadia,  1580-85;  published  1590. 
Combines  pastoral  and  chivalric  elements ;  contains  elements 
drawn  from  Sannazaro's  Arcadia  (title;  pastoral  back- 
ground; interspersed  eclogues);  Montemayor's  Diana  (open- 


\ 


110 

ing  passages  similar;  some  lyrics  translated  from  it;  woman- 
page  motif) ;  Amadis  of  Gaul  (romantic  and  chivalric  epi- 
sodes) ;  and  the  Greek  romances  (prince  captured  by  band  of 
outlaws,  etc.).  Plot  badly  made,  because  of  multitude 
of  characters  and  incidents;  style  marked  rather  by  conceits 
and  bold  metaphors  than  the  Euphuistic  simile,  sentences 
longer  than  in  Euphues;  was  regarded  as  a  "poem"  in  its 
time,  and  had  great  influence  on  drama  (e.  g.  the  Gloucester 
plot  in  Lear),  on  contemporary  poetry,  and  in  later  times 
(e.  g.  Pamela's  prayer  was  used  by  Charles  I  and  called  forth 
a  pamphlet  from  Milton;  name  also  used  by  Richardson  in 
Pamela,    etc.)- 

(e)  Thomas  Nash,  Jack  Wilton,  1594.  Story  of  an  advent- 
urer in  his  travels  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  until  his 
return  with  rich  Itahan  wife.  Time  of  Henry  VIII;  the  poet 
Surrey  is  introduced  and  his  love  for  Geraldine  of  the  sonnets 
made  excuse  for  ridicule  of  Petrarchism;  purpose  also  to 
make  fun  of  German  and  Italian  culture,  and  of  the  English 
for  aping  foreign  fashions.  Style  affected,  but  better  than 
Lyly's  or  Sidney's;  more  realistic  and  witty;  deals  with  com- 
mon life,  not  pastoral,  and  is  related  to  picaresque  genre. 
Suggests  Don  Quixote  in  parts. 

(/)  Thomas  Deloney  wrote  (1596-1600)  three  storiest.(  r/^o?^ as 
of  Reading,  Jack  of  Newbury,  and  the  Gentle  Craft)  in  praise 
of  the  crafts  of  the  clothiers,  the  weavers,  and  the  cobblers, 
with  much  realistic  description  of  contemporary  life. 

References:  Jusserand,  The  English  Novel,  chapters  ii-v;  Literary  History, 
III.  chapter  iv;  Cambridge  III.  386-424;  Canby,  The  Short  Story  in  English, 
103-155  (especially  good  for  its  treatment  of  the  collections  of  prose  tales); 
Dunlop,  History  of  Fiction,  II.  chapter  xi  (especially  for  summaries  of  plots); 
Courthopc,  II.  chapters  vii,  viii.  See  also  the  histories  of  tlie  English  Novel  by 
Cross,  Raleigh,  Warren.  The  chapter  on  Arcadia  in  Fox  Bourne's  Life  of  Sid- 
ney; the  essay  on  Lodge  in  Gosse's  Seventeenth  Century  Studies,  and  IMorley's 
English  Writers  X  may  also  be  consulted.  An  excellent  edition  of  Rusalynde 
is  in  "The  Shakespeare  Library"  (Duffield  &  Co.). 


112 

II.      The  Beginnings  of  Literary  Criticism  in  England 

1.  Literary  criticism  before  the  sixteenth  century 

(a)  Chaucer's  criticism  of  the  romances  in  his  Sir  Thopas. 

(b)  Works  on  Rhetoric  were  the  outgrowth  of  Humanism. 

2.  Roger  Ascham  introduced  some  elementary  literary  criticism 
in  The  Scolemaster,  1570. 

3.  George  Gascoigne,  Certayn  Notes  of  Instruction,  1575;  rules 
for  writing  verse. 

4.  Stephen  Gosson,  School  of  Abuse,  1579,  represents  Puritan 
attack  on  poetry  for  its  immorality;  attacked  drama  and  romances 
especially. 

5.  Thomas  Lodge,  A  Defence  of  Poetry,  1579;  an  eloquent  reply 
to  Gosson. 

6.  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  The  Defense  of  Poesy,  written  about  1583; 
discusses  position  of  poetry  in  past  ages;  classifies  the  "kinds"; 
maintains  poetry  to  be  the  highest  of  knowledges;  defends  it 
against  charges  of  immorality,  and  reviews  state  of  poetry  and 
drama  in  his  own  time;  classical  point  of  view. 

7.  William  Webbe,  Discourse  of  English  Poetrie,  1586;  historical 
but  inadequate  survey  of  English  poetry;  abuses  rhyme  and  holds 
brief  for  quantitative  verse;  compare  Harvey's  letters  to  Spenser 
and  the  theories  of  the  Areopagus. 

8.  Puttenham's  (?)  Arte  of  English  Poesie,  published  1589;  com- 
bines rhetoric  with  poetical  criticism;  historical  survey;  praises 
Spenser  and  Sidney. 


114 

g.  Sir  John  Harington,  in  the  Preface  to  his  translation  of 
Ariosto,  1591,  phrases  tendency  to  regard  Virgil  as  model  for 
epic  poetry  and  compares  him,  in  much  detail,   with  Ariosto. 

10.  Thomas  Campion,  Observations  on  the  Art  of  English  Poesy, 
1G02,  reflects  protest  against  effort  to  make  English  verse  conform 
to  classical  models,  shown  in  the  earlier  quantitative  verse. 

11.  Samuel  Daniel,  A  Defence  of  Ryme,  1603,  carries  the  revolt 
farther  and  maintains  the  necessity  of  an  English  system. 

12.  As  a  whole,  Elizabethan  criticism  has  strong  moral  element, 
due  to  the  Puritan  attack  and  the  defences  thereto;  leans  toward 
classicism  and  ''rules";  admits  the  transitional  character  of 
poetry  of  the  time;  shows  beginnings  of  valuation  of  authors 
and  works.  • 

References:  Cambridge,  III.  chapter  xiv;  the  introduction  to  Gregory  Smith's 
Elizabethan  Critical  Essays;  Spingarn's  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance; 
Jusserand  II.  354-368.  Sidney's  Defense,  edited  by  Cook,  is  published  by  Giun 
&  Company. 


116 

m.     Historical  and  Didactic  Works 

1.  Chronicles  were  written  by  Raphael  Holinshed  (editor),  Ed- 
ward Hall,  WiUiam  Camden,  and  others.  Raleigh  attempted  a 
history  of  the  world.  Richard  Hakluyt,  Raleigh,  and  others 
wrote  accounts  of  travel  and  colonization. 

2.  Richard  Hooker  wrote,  1594-1597,  Of  the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical 
Polity,  a  defense  of  the  Anglican  position  as  against  Calvinism. 
Notable  for  its  philosophical  breadth  of  view,  its  dignity,  its 
learning,  and  a  style  eloquent  and  sonorous. 

IV.  Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626) 

1.  Lawyer,  member  of  Parliament,  and  orator  of  great  eminence, 
as  w^ell  as  an  eager  and  ambitious  student  during  the  time  of 
Elizabeth;  attained  eminence  as  a  writer  and  philosopher  during 
the  reign  of  James;  life  marked  by  doubleness  of  aim,  due  to 
self-seeking  ambition  coupled  with  a  desire  for  service  to  knowl- 
edge: ''I  have  taken  all  knowledge  to  be  my  province." 

2.  Chief  prose  works 

(a)  Essays,  published  1597  (containing  ten  essays);  1612, 
(38  essays);  1625  (58  essays).  "Certain  brief  notes,  set 
down  rather  significantly  than  curiously";  subjects  usually 
abstract,  treated  from  utilitarian  point  of  view;  notable  for 
abundance  of  illustration,  shrewdness,  extreme  conciseness. 

(b)  Advancement  of  Learning  (1605);  a  summary  of  existing 
knowledge. 

(c)  The  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients  (1609);  thirty-one  classical 
myths  with  allegorical  interpretation. 

(d)  Novum  Organum  (1620) ;  presents  the  "new  instrument  of 
thought  and  discovery,"  an  analysis  and  arrangement  of 
inductive  evidence;  stresses  practical  aim  of  knowledge; 
significant  rather  for  the  indication  of  the  way  in  which 
science  was  to  develop  than  for  the  value  of  the  results 
reached  by  the  author;  written  in  Latin. 


118 

Studies 

1.  "Of  Studies":  Has  this  essay  any  structure  or  is  it  inorganic?     What 

devices  are  used  for  marking  transitions  between  sentences  and  main 
divisions  of  the  thought,  if  any?  What  is  the  difference  between 
Bacon's  use  of  antithesis  and  balance  and  Lyly's?  Study  with 
care  the  diction:  use  of  archaic  and  obsolete  words;  source  of  the 
vocabulary  (Latin  or  English?);  the  use  of  rhetorical  figures.  Is 
the  style  similar  to  that  of  the  Bible  in  any  respects? 

2.  "Of  Truth":  Structure?     How  does  the  imagery  differ  from  that  in 

the  essay  on  Studies?     What  does  he  mean  by  "lie"? 

3.  What  indications  of  the  character  of  the  man  are  to  be  found  in  the 

essays  "Of  Love,"  "Of  Great  Place,"  "Of  Wisdom  for  a  Man's 
Self"? 

4.  Classify  the  themes  of  the  Essays. 

5.  Compare  with  the  Essays  of  Montaigne. 

References:  Cambridge  IV.  319-335  (best  for  discussion  of  the  scientific  value 
of  Bacon's  work) :  Schelling,  English  Literature  During  the  Lifetime  of  Shakespeare, 
337-356  (inchnes  to  hostile  view);  Scott,  Introduction  to  edition  of  the  Essays 
(distinctly  appreciative  view,  with  thorough  study  of  literary  quahties  and 
sources);  Jusserand  III.  524-549  (like  Macaulay's  Essay  in  balancing  character 
of  the  man  against  wisdom  of  the  writer).  The  best  edition  of  the  Essays  is 
that  by  M.  A.  Scott  (Scribners). 


120 
ELIZABETHAN   TRANSLATIONS 

I.     Translations  from  the  Classics 

1.  English  translations  of  Ovid,  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Sallust, 
Xenophon,  Cicero. 

2.  Sir  Thomas  North,  Plutarch,  1579. 

3.  R.  Stanyhurst,  Virgil's  Aeneid  (four  books),  1582. 

4.  George  Chapman,  Homer's  Iliad,  1598,  1611. 
11.     Translations  from  contemporary  foreign  literature 

1.  Thomas  Hoby,  The  Boke  of  the  Courtier,  1561,  from  II  Cor- 
tegiano  by  Castiglione;  a  famous  "conduct-book,"  important 
for  its  influence  on  Spenser. 

2.  The  Italian  prose  tales  were  translated  by  Fenton,  Painter, 
and  others. 

3.  Machiavelli's  II  Principe,  known  in  the  original  and  in  the 
garbled  French  version  by  Gentillet,  exerted  profound  influence 
on  Elizabethan  thought  and  literature;  the  Art  of  War  and  Floren- 
tine History  were  known  in  English  versions. 

4.  Italian  poetry:  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso  translated  by  Haring- 
ton,  1591;  Tasso' s  Gerusalemme  Liberata  translated  by  Fairfax, 
1600.  Petrarch  universally  known,  but  usually  translated  piece- 
meal and  without  acknowledgment. 

5.  French  hterature:  Florio's  translation  of  Montaigne,  1603; 
Sylvester's  translation  of  Du  Bartas,  1590-1592.  Influence  of 
Ronsard,  Desportes,  and  Du  Bellay  comparable  with  that  of 
Petrarch,  and  transmitted  in  the  same  manner. 

References:  Schelling,  English  Literature  etc.,  262-291;  Cambridge  IV.  1-28; 
Jusserand  II.  386-377;  also  the  works  on  the  ItaUan  and  French  Renaissance  in 
England  by  Einstein,  Upham,  Lee. 


122 

m.     The  English  Bible 

1.  Partial  translations  made  in  Anglo  Saxon  times  by  Alfred  and 
Aelfric ;  in  the  fourteenth  century  by  John  Wyclif . 

2.  Translations  in  the  sixteenth  century 

(a)  Wilham  Tindale  translated,  1526-1530,  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Pentateuch;  this  influenced  Matthew's  Bible, 
edited  by  John  Rogers,  1537,  and  the  Great  Bible,  edited  by 
Cranmer,  1539. 

(b)  First  English  version  of  the  entire  Bible  by  ^Miles  Cover- 
dale,  1535. 

3.  The   King   James   Bible,    1604-1611,  has  exerted  prodigious 
influence  on  English  literature. 

(a)  Because  though  translations  from  the  classics  and  from 
contemporary  foreign  literature  usually  fail  to  render  ex- 
actly the  genius  of  the  original  tongue,  it  was  possible  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  scriptures  with  such  fidelity  as  to 
reproduce  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  matter  of  the  original. 

(b)  Because  its  concreteness  and  simplicity  corrected  the 
main  faults  of  Elizabethan  prose  in  diction  and  imagery; 
93%  of  its  vocabulary  is  native  English,  and  there  are  only 
about  6000  words  as  against  20,000  or  more  in  Shakspere 
and  13,000  in  Milton. 

(c)  Because  the  poetical  portions  of  the  work,  retaining  in 
the  translation  their  emotional  and  imaginative  value, 
served  as  a  model  for  an  English  prose  which  should  have 
literary  distinction  without  the  affectation  of  Euphuism, 
or  the  disorder  and  incoherence  of  the  tracts,  or  the  abstract 
and  involved  style  of  Latinized  prose. 

(d)  Because  its  passionate  earnestness  and  directness  of 
appeal  give  the  intensity  found  in  the  drama  but  rarely  in 
earlier  prose. 

(c)  Because  its  phrases  and  images  have  become  imbedded 
in  daily  speech,  a  source  of  allusion  more  pervasive  than 
any  other,  part  and  parcel  of  the  style  of  all  English  authors 
of  distinction  since  its  time. 


124 

(/)  Because  of  the  universality  of  its  appeal  to  all  classes 
of  society,  whatever  the  degree  of  education;  only  Shaks- 
pere  being  comparable  in  influence  in  this  respect. 

References:  Professor  Cook's  chapter  in  Cambridge  IV.  29-58;  Gardiner's 
The  Bible  as  English  Ldterature,  282-396;  Green,  History  of  the  English  People, 
Book  VII,  chapter  i.  A  good  introduction  to  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible 
is  that  by  R.  G.  Moulton  (Heath  &  Company). 


126 
POETRY  FROM  JONSON  TO  MILTON 

L     The  Transition  to  the  Seventeenth  Century 

1.  Michael  Drayton  (1563-1631) 

(a)  Significant  because  his  work  reflects  the  course  of  Eng- 
lish poetry  from  the  time  of  the  sonnet  cycles  to  the  birth 
of  Dry  den. 

(6)  Chief  works:  Idea,  the  Shepheards  Garland,  1593,  1606, 
a  series  of  eclogues  in  imitation  of  the  Shepheards  Calender 
but  with  much  less  satire  and  moralizing;  Idea's  Mirrour, 
1594,  a  soniiet  cycle  which  passed  through  eleven  editions 
by  1631 ;  England'' s  Heroicall  Epistles,  1597,  a  series  of  letters 
from  heroic  lovers,  written  in  couplets  (compare  Pope's 
Eloisa  to  Abelard);  Odes,  1606;  Poly-Olhion,  1613,  1622, 
an  account  of  observation  and  travel  in  England,  preserv- 
ing history  and  legend  as  related  to  places  visited;  Nym- 
phidia,  1627,  a  mock-heroic  poem  about  Oberon  and  Titania. 
{Poly-Olhion  is  one  of  a  number  of  long  poems  patriotic 
in  aim  and  epic  in  stjde;  other  examples  being  Albion's 
England,  by  Warner,  1586,  and  The  Civill  Wars,  by  Daniel, 
1595-1609.) 

2.  John  Donne  (1573-1631) 

(a)  Most  of  his  poems  collected  and  published  1633,  1635, 
but  written  1592-1602;  these  poems  Elizabethan  in  time 
but  their  chief  influence  felt  in  the  seventeenth  centur3^ 
(6)  Themes:  songs  and  sonnets  mainly  of  an  erotic  type; 
\  satires;  devotional  poems. 
v(c)  Significant  for  his  rebellion  against  Petrarchism  (com- 
pare Nash,  and  the  sonnets  of  Shakspere) ;  for  his  inequal- 
ity of  style  and  subtlety  and  ingenuity  of  thought;  for  his 
disregard  of  convention,  and  for  his  use  of  conceits  drawn 
from  scientific  and  out  of  the  way  sources;  his  imagery, 
however,  not  intended  for  ornament  so  much  as  for  the 
expression  of  highly  original  and  imaginative  thought; 
somewhat  similar  to  Browning. 


128 

(d)  Representative  poems:  Go  and  Catch  a  Falling  Star  and 
Love's  Deity  (cynicism,  contempt  for  Petrarchistic  ideal); 
The  Ecstacy  (shows  his  pecuUar  style  and  intellectual 
subtlety);  The  Storm  (notable  example  of  graphic  descrip- 
tion); Death  (a  sonnet). 

;.  Ben  Jonson  (1573-1637) 

(a)  Besides  his  dramas  and  masques,  Jonson  wrote  odes, 
lyrics  and  epigrams,  printed  as  Epigrams  and  The  Forest, 
1616;  Underwoods,  1640;  and  the  prose  Timber  or  Dis- 
coveries, 1641.  The  last  contains,  besides  little  essays  on 
men  and  conduct,  essays  on  style  and  poetry  which  show 
the  influence  of  Quintilian,  Horace,  and  Aristotle  and  point 
toward  the  criticism  of  the  age  of  Dryden  and  Pope. 

-/-_  (6)  Jonson's  lyrics  are  notable  for  their  sense  of  form, 
finish  of  style,  indebtedness  to  the  classics,  and  for  their 
influence  on   Herrick  and  others  of  the  "tribe  of   Ben." 

I -Jonson  and  Donne  also  used  the  heroic  couplet  for  satire 

and  epigram. 

\.  Robert  Herrick  (1591-1674) 

(a)  His  lyrics,  about  1200  in  number,  written  at  various 
times  but  not  collected  and  pubUshed  until  1648,  with  the 
titles  Hesperides  and  Noble  Numbers;  the  first  collection 
consisting  of  secular  and  the  second  of  devotional  verse. 

(b)  Besides  Jonson's,  chief  influences  on  his  work  the  poems 
of  Catullus,  Horace,  and  the  Anacreontic  lyrics. 

(c)  Themes:  amoristic  poems  free  from  Petrarchism  or 
subtlety;  folk  customs;  the  transitoriness  of  beauty;  the 
seasons;  flowers  and  fairies;  religious  poems. 

(d)  Poetry  marked  by  polish  of  form  combined  with  great 
lyrical  power;  large  variety  of  metrical  forms;  absence 
of  deep  feeling  or  serious  thought. 


7^ 


130 

II.     The  School  of  Spenser 

1.  William  Druiiimond  of  Hawthornden  (1585-1649)  wrote  many 
lyrics,  both  amorous  and  religious;  some  pastorals;  a  prose  tract, 
The  Cypresse  Grove,  is  a  discourse  upon  death  that  anticipates 
the  work  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne. 

2.  George  Wither  (1588-162J) 

(a)  Satire :  Abuses  Stript  and  Whipt. 

(b)  Pastorals:  The  Shepherd's  Hunting  (1615);  Fidelia 
(1617);  Faire   Virtue  (1622).     These  marked  by  true  love 

^^  of  nature,  simplicity,  lyrical  power,  use  of  the  four  accent 

couplet  made  famous  by  Milton. 

(c)  Religious  poetry:  Haleluiah,  a  collection  of  Puritan 
hymns,  reflecting  his  sympathy  with  Puritanism,  1641. 

3.  William  Browne  (1591-1645) 

(a)  Britannia's  Pastorals  (1613,  1616)  imitate  Spenser,  but 

are  simple  and  observant;  patriotic  in  intention. 

(6)  Inner   Temple  Masque,  performed   1614-15,  influenced 

Co7nus. 

4.  Giles  Fletcher  (1588-1623) 

(a)  Like  other  poets  in  this  group,  links  Spenser  and  Milton. 
Most  important  work,  Christ's  Victorie,  1610,  in  a  modi- 
fied Spenserian  stanza,  is  in  four  parts:  Heaven,  Earth, 
Death,  Resurrection;  and  illustrates  growing  tendency 
toward  epic  treatment  of  biblical  material. 

5.  Phineas  Fletcher  (1582-1650) 

(a)  Britain's  Ida,  1628,  a  version  of  the  Venus  and  Adonis 
story  written  in  a  modified  Spenserian  stanza,  and  long 
attributed  to  Spenser. 

(b)  The  Purple  Island,  1633,  an  allegory  of  the  human  body 
with  nmch  moral  allegory  in  the  manner  of  Spenser.  Com- 
pare Nosce  Teipsum,  by  Sir  John  Davies,  1602,  a  philo- 
sophical poem  on  human  nature. 

(c)  The  ApoUyonists,  1627,  five  cantos  in  modified  Spen- 
serian stanza,  in  which  the  story  of  the  Fall  of  Lucifer  is 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  Roman  church  and  reaches 
a  climax  in  the  C^unpowder  plot.  Interesting  relations 
to  Milton. 


132 

m.     Lyric  Poets 

1.  The  Cavalier  Lyrists 

(a)  Besides  Herrick,  a  group  of  court  poets  wrote  songs 
and  lyrics  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Chief  among  them 
were  Thomas  Carew  (1598-1639);  Richard  Lovelace  (1618- 
1658) ;  Sir  John  Suckling  (1609-1641). 
'  ^  (5)  These  poets  notable  for  qualities  of  verse  already  noted 
in  Jonson  and  Herrick,  but  with  far  less  range  and  greater 
artificiality. 

2.  Writers  of  the  religious  lyric 

(a)  George  Herbert  (1593-1633)  wrote  The  Temple,  a  col- 
lection of  nearly  two  hundred  poems,  published  1633.  In 
attention  to  form,  suggests  the  Cavalier  group;  his  fondness 
—  for  conceits  shows  his  relation  to  the  type  of  poetry  insti- 
tuted by  Donne;  his  passionate  intensity  and  sincerity 
reveal  the  character  of  the  man  and  the  contrast  between 
him  and  Herrick. 

(6)  Richard  Crashaw  (1612-1649)  wrote  both  secular  and 
religious  lyrics.  Of  the  first.  Wishes  to  his  Supposed  Mis- 
tress is  the  most  famous;  of  the  second,  The  Weeper  is  notable 
for  the  grotesqueness  of  its  conceits,  while  the  Hymne 
to  St.  Teresa  is  passionate  and  powerful. 

(c)  Henry  Vaughan  (1621-1695)  published  Silex  Scintillans 
1650,  1656;  owed  much  to  Herbert,  but  with  stronger  ten- 
dency to  mysticism;  imaginative  power  manifest  in  The 
World  and  They  are  all  gone  into  the  World  of  Light.  In 
The  Retreat  suggested  the  main  thought  of  Wordsworth's 
ode  on  Immortality. 

(d)  William  Habington  (1605-1654)  wrote  Castara,  a  col- 
lection of  love  poems,  together  with  many  religious  lyrics. 

(e)  Francis  Quarles  (1592-1644)  is  remembered  for  his 
Emhlemes,    1635. 


134 

IV.      Beginnings  of  Pseudo-Classicism 

1.  The  three  main  tendencies  in  seventeenth  century  poetry  thus 

far  considered: 

(a)  The  school  dominated  by  Jonson  and  Herrick  represents 
the  classical  impulse  toward  perfection  of  form. 

(b)  The  Spenserian  group  represents  the  growing  interest 
in  long  narrative  and  epic  poems  partly  religious,  partly 
historical  and  patriotic. 

(c)  The  concettists  (Donne,  Herbert,  Crashaw,  etc.)  repre- 
sent not  only  the  decadence  from  Ehzabethan  imaginative 
and  lyrical  power  and  a  new  artificiality  distinct  from  the 
artificiahty  of  Petrarchism,  Euphuism,  etc.,  but  also  an 
increasingly  religious  tone  of  poetry  reflecting  sincere  feel- 
ing, often  expressed  in  the  grotesque  and  over-wrought  im- 
agery characteristic  also  of  Puritan  poetry  and  prose. 

2.  The  group  now  to  be  considered  represents  the  further  devel- 
opment of  classicism  into  a  poetry  that  stresses  form  above  con- 
tent.  The  ode  replaces  the  older  pastoral  and  sonnet;  the  couplet 
becomes  epigrammatic;  ''fancy"  takes  the  place  of  imagination; 
medieval  abstractions  become  mere  conventions;  classical  allu- 
sion and  studied  phrase  lead  to  a  new  poetic  diction.  Chief 
exemplars  of  this  tendency:  Waller;  Denham;  Cowley;  Davenant. 


136 

Edmund  Waller  (1605/6-1687) 

(a)  His  Poems  published  1645;  translation  of  a  part  of  Vir- 
gil, 1658;  Divine  Poems,  1685;  about  5000  lines  in  all. 
ih)  Distinguished  for  some  fine  lyrics,  which  however  are 
imitative,  not  original;  other  lyrics  marked  by  triviality, 
gallantry,  cynicism.  Chief  reasons  for  the  great  influence 
exerted  by  him  to  be  found  in  his  popularizing  of  the  closed 
couplet;  in  his  theory  that  the  function  of  poetry  is  to  please; 
and  in  the  example  which  he  set  for  regarding  polish  and 
elegance  as  the  chief  duty  of  a  poet. 

(c)  Before  "Waller,  the  heroic  couplet  long  known.  Chaucer 
used  it,  but  in  flexible  form,  in  a  large  portion  of  his  work; 
Spenser  used  it  in  satirical  verse;  Shakspere  in  parts  of 
Love's  Labour's  Lost;  Joseph  Hall  in  his  satires  (Vergi- 
demiarum,  1597,  based  on  Juvenal)  gave  it  much  of  the  point 
and  epigram  dear  to  later  times;  Jonson,  who  was  Waller's 
master,  also  used  it  in  his  satires;  Drayton,  in  his  Heroicall 
Epistles;  and  George  Sandys,  in  his  versions  of  Ovid,  1626, 
and  of  the  Aeneid,  Book  I,  1632,  showed  its  possibilities  as 
a  medium  for  translation  of  the  classics. 

Sir  John  Denham  (1615-1668) 

(a)  Translated  part  of  the  Aeneid  into  heroic  couplets. 
(6)  Cooper's    Hill,   1642;  in  heroic  couplets;  combines  des- 
cription with  moral  reflection;  the  description  being  general, 
not  specific,   and  the  style  conventional  but  concise  and 
antithetical. 


138 

5.  Abraham  Cowley  (1618-1667) 

(a)  The  Mistress,  1647,  amoristic  poetry  marked  by  frigid- 
ity, conventionality,  conceits. 

(6)  Pindarique  Odes,  1656,  professed  to  imitate  Pindar's 
"enthusiasticall  manner";  not  truly  Pindaric  in  form; 
filled  with  abstractions  and  conceits;  exerted  great  influ- 
ence on  succeeding  pseudo-classic  poets, 
(c)  Davideis,  1656,  a  sacred  epic,  designed  in  imitation  of 
Virgil,  but  only  four  of  the  twelve  books  written;  pedantic 
and  labored,  but  illustrates  tendency  that  was  to  culminate 
in  Milton;  heroic  couplet. 

(rf)  Cowley's  influence  mainly  felt  in  his  popularizing  of 
the  ode,  which  became  the  chief  lyric  form  in  the  pseudo- 
classic  period ;  and  in  his  use  of  the  couplet  for  heroic  narra- 
tive. His  prose,  Advancement  of  Learning,  Cromwell,  Essays, 
(1661),  is  free  from  the  artificiality  of  his  verse. 

6.  Sir  William  Davenant  wrote  an  epic  poem,  Gondibert  (two 
books  published  1650);  planned  in  five  books  corresponding  to 
the  five  acts  of  a  drama;  poem  suggests  the  heroic  plays  of  Dry- 
den  in  style,  theme,  and  conception  of  poetry. 

References:  The  best  survey  of  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  period  is  in  Schelling, 
Seventeenth  Century  Lyrics;  see  also  Ward's  English  Poets  III.;  Drayton,  in  Cam- 
bridge IV.  193-224;  Herrick:  Cambridge  VII.  5-18;  Courthope  III.  253-265. 
Donne:  Schelling,  English  Literature  etc.,  357-377;  Cambridge  IV.  225-256; 
Courthope  III.  147-168.  The  Spcnserians:  Cambridge  IV.  172-192;  Courthope 
III.  9-73;  12G-14G.  Theological  and  Court  lyrists:  Cambridge  VII.  1-54;  Court- 
hope  III.  118-14G;  169-333.  Classical  group:  Cambridge  VII.  55-81;  Courthope 
III.  271-284;  334-385. 


140 
SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  PROSE  BEFORE   DRYDEN 

I.     The  Prose  of  Learning  and  Scientific  Inquiry 

1.  Bacon's  scientific  works  belong  to  the  early  part  of  the  century. 

2.  Robert  Burton  (1577-1640) 

(a)   The   Anatomy  of  Melancholy,   1621,   purports  to  be  a 

scientific    inquiry   into    the    definition,    causes,    symptoms, 

and  properties  of  melancholy;  its  cure;  with  a  special  study 

of  love  melancholy  and  religious  melancholy. 

(6)  Style   marked   by   pedantic    quotation    of    authorities; 

ill-digested  masses  of  material;  humor;  interest  in  human 

nature. 

(c)  Influenced  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy,  Lamb,  Coleridge, 

etc. 

3.  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1605-1682) 

(a)  Religio  Medici,  written  about  1635  for  private  use,  pub- 
lished 1642,  1643;  immense  popularity  due  in  part  to  its 
freedom  from  the  rehgious  controv  rsy  of  the  time,  in  part 
to  the  charm  of  its  style  and  of  the  personality  revealed 
in  its  pages. 

(6)  Hydriotaphia  or  Urn  Burial,  and  The  Garden  of  Cyrus, 
1658.  The  first,  inspired  by  the  discovery  of  some  burial 
urns  at  Norfolk,  is  an  essay  on  modes  of  burial,  and  a  series 
of  reflections  on  death,  fame,  and  immortality, 
(c)  Style  intimately  revealing,  imaginative,  rhythmical, 
erudite;  curious  in  texture,  in  subject,  in  intellectual  quaUty. 

4.  Thomas  Fuller  (1608-1661) 

(a)   The  Holy  War  (1640);  Holy  and  Profane  State   (1641); 

The  Worthies  of  England  (1662). 

(6)  Notable  for  skill  in  characterization  and  for  his  wit. 


^ 


•• 


142 

5.  Izaak  Walton  (1593-1683) 

(a)  Compleat  Angler  (1653);  Lives  (of  Donne,  Herbert, 
Wotton,  and  others)  published  separately  at  various  times; 
collected,  1670. 

(6)  Less  pedantic  than  others  included  in  this  section,  he 
shows  the  spirit  of  the  antiquary,  combined  with  that  of 
the  lover  of  nature;  his  style  charming  for  its  simplicity. 
II.     Travel,  History,  Political  Science 

1.  Books  of  travel  by  Purchas  (1613),  Sandys  (1615),  and  others. 

2.  Historical    works    by    Bacon    {Henry    the    Seventh),    Raleigh 
( History  of  the  World) ,  and  others. 

3.  Thomas  Hobbes  wrote  (1631)   Leviathan,  "the  matter,  form, 
and  power  of  a  commonwealth." 

III.     Theological  Writers 

1.  Richard  Baxter,  The  Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,  1649/50. 

2.  Jeremy  Taylor,   Holy  Living  (1650);  Holy  Dying  (1651). 

References:  No  satisfactory  liistory  of  English  prose  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury exists.  For  the  writers  in  group  I.,  consult  Cambridge  VII.  A  convenient 
edition  of  Browne's  principal  Avritings,  with  an  introduction  by  Professor  Herford, 
is  published  in  Everyman's  Library. 


144 
JOHN   MILTON    (1608-1674) 

I.      First  Period  (1608-1639) 

1.  Poems   written   while   a   student   at   Christ's   College,    Cam- 
bridge, 1625-1632. 

(a)  On  the  Morning  of  Christ's  Nativity  (1629) ;  unites  Pagan 
and  Christian  elements  in  the  manner  of  Renaissance  poets; 
anticipates  the  conception,  in  Paradise  Lost,  that  heathen 
deities,  representatives  of  Satan,  were  put  to  flight  by  the 
coming  of  Christ;  shows  sympathy  with  the  beauty  of  old 
religious  faiths,  not  hatred ;  style  disfigured  at  times  by  con- 
ceits, but  a  poem  filled  with  lyrical  beauty  despite  its  learn- 
ing. 

(fe)  Seven  Latin  elegies,  written  1625-1629,  valuable  for 
autobiographical  details:  his  relations  to  several  friends; 
an  early  love  affair;  his  interest  in  London  crowds  and  thea- 
tres; his  conception  of  the  poet's  function. 

(c)  Some  experiments  in  verse,  such  as  metrical  versions 
of  some  Psalms,  a  speech  for  a  vacation  exercise  at  college, 
some  elegiac  poems,  a  tribute  to  Shakspere. 

(d)  The  famous  sonnet  On  Being  Arrived  at  the  Age  of 
Twenty  Three. 

2.  Poems  written  at  Horton  (1632-1638) 

(a)  L' Allegro  and  II  Penseroso  (1634);  studies  in  contrasted 
moods,  representing  what  were  to  him  the  two  sides  of  a 
well  proportioned  life;  exactly  balanced  in  structure;  the 
setting  that  of  an  "ideal  day,"  though  this  is  not  strictly 
followed. 

(b)  The  Masques:  Arcades,  a  fragment,  1633;  Comus,  1634, 
published  1637.  Comus  unites  classical  studies  of  Milton 
with  elements  characteristic  of  the  Renaissance;  sources 
and  analogues  in  Spenser  (his  theory  of  Beauty,  and  the 
Bower  of  Bliss) ;  Peele,  The  Old  Wives  Talc ;  Fletcher,  The 
Faithful  Shepherdess;  Jonson's  masque  of  Pleasure  Recon- 
ciled to   Virtue.     Distinguished  from  usual  type  of  masque 


146 

by  greater  amount  of  story,  seriousness  of  tone,  lyrical  beauty, 
perfection  of  form. 

(r)  Lycidas  (1637),  published  in  the  collection  of  elegies 
in  memory  of  Edward  King,  1638;  a  pastoral  dirge  which 
observes  many  of  the  conventions  of  the  genre,  but  individual 
in  style,  thought,  and  beauty.  Sources  and  analogues 
in  Theocritus,  Virgil,  and  Spenser. 

3.  Poems  belonging  to  the  period  of  foreign  travel,  1638-1639. 

(a)  Six  Italian  sonnets,  showing  the  influence  of  Petrarch, 
and  perhaps  reflecting  an  experience  in  Italy. 
(6)  To  Manso,  a  Latin  verse  epistle  addressed  to  a  man  of 
letters  whom  Milton  met  at  Naples;  poem  important  for  in- 
dication that  Milton  contemplated  an  Arthurian  epic, 
(c)  Epitaphium  Damonis,  a  pastoral  dirge  of  great  beauty, 
written  in  Latin,  in  memory  of  his  friend  Diodati,  and  con- 
taining further  references  to  the  projected  Arthurian  epic. 

4.  These  poems  were  collected  in  1645  and  published  under  the 
title  "Poems  of  Mr.  John  Milton,  both  English  and  Latin,  com- 
posed at  several  times." 


148 

II.     Second  Period  (1640-1660) 

1.  This  period  important  chiefly  for  the  prose  works;  Milton 
engaged  in  teaching,  1639-1647;  Secretary  for  Foreign  Tongues, 
1649-1660;  completely  blind  after  1652. 

2.  Chief  Prose  Works 

(a)   The  Reason  of  Church  Government  (1642);  one  of  the 
most  important   sources  of  knowledge   concerning   his  life 
and  opinions. 
"^    (6)   The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce,  1643. 

(c)  Education,  1644. 

(d)  Areopagitica,  1644;  a  defence  of  the  liberty  of  the  press. 

(e)  Tenure   of   Kings  and  Magistrates,  and  Eikonoklastes, 
,     1649,  deal  with  right  of  people  to  dethrone  a  monarch. 

^    (0  A  Free  Commonwealth,  1660;  proposes  an  oligarchy,  not 
true    republic;    possibly    caused   loss  of  secretaryship  and 
arrest,  August-December,  1660. 
3-  Poems 

(a)  Most  of  the  Sonnets  belong  to  this  period;  these  approach 
more  nearly  the  Italian  form  and  imitate  Petrarch  rather 
in  the  use  of  themes  drawn  from  religion,  politics  and 
the  life  of  the  poet  than  in  the  Elizabethan  sense.  Several 
are  addressed  to  women;  others  to  intimate  friends;  a 
third  group  deals  with  politics  and  statesmen,  and  the  fourth 
is  autobiographical. 

(6)  Some  few  translations  belong  here,  chiefly  from  the 
Psalms,  and  the  pathetic  Latin  ode  to  John  Rouse  (1646) 
librarian  at  Oxford,  in  which  Milton  longs  for  the  return 
of  the  Muse  of  Learning  and  an  age  of  sounder  hearts. 


150 

III.     Paradise  Lost 

1.  Published  1667,  in  ten  books;  second  edition,  dividing  books 
vii  and  x  of  the  original,  making  twelve  books  in  all,  1674. 

2.  Inception  from  1641;  chief  documents  are  his  Epistle  to  Manso, 
the  Epitaphium  Damonis,  the  Reason  of  Church  Government,  and 
his  Common-place  Book.  Hesitated  between  Arthurian  and  Bib- 
lical subject;  epic  or  Greek  tragedy.  By  1642  had  several  outlines 
on  Fall  of  Man;  began  work  soon  after.  Influenced  by  Spenser, 
Tasso,  and  Renaissance  theory  of  a  poet's  function  and  of  the  epic. 

3.  Sources  and  analogues:  Many  epics  and  dramas  on  biblical 
subjects  throughout  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Milton 
possibly  influenced  by  Andreini  {Adamo,  Italian  drama,  1613); 
Du  Bartas  {Divine  Week,  translated  by  Sylvester,  1605);  Vondel 
{Lucifer,  Dutch  drama,  1654).  Other  poems  by  Vondel,  the 
Adamus  Exul  by  Grotius,  and  English  poems  by  Giles  and  Phineas 
Fletcher  may  have  had  influence.  Real  significance  is  not  in 
direct  borrowing;  rather  in  proof  of  widespread  interest  in  such 
subjects;  like  Dante,  Milton  sums  up  an  epoch;  his  poem  is 
a  literary  epic,  but  is  the  result  of  something  analogous  to  ''epic 
ferment."  Error  to  regard  it  as  the  result  of  his  despair  over 
the  failure  of  the  Commonwealth;  in  inception  and  in  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  writing  it  proceeds  from  a  very  different  mood. 

4.  Contents:  Book  I.  Satan  and  Beelzebub  arouse  their  followers 
from  the  Lake  of  Fire;  Pandemonium  built.  II.  The  Parliament 
in  Pandemonium;  Satan  chosen  for  embassy  to  Earth;  the  occu- 
pations of  his  followers  during  his  absence;  his  flight  through 
Chaos.  III.  The  consultation  in  Heaven;  Satan's  arrival  at 
the  World  (Ptolemaic  cosmogony) ;  interviews  Uriel  in  the  Sphere 
of  the  Sun;  arrives  at  Earth  near  Eden.  IV.  Satan  visits  Eden, 
learns  the  conditions  on  which  Man  may  remain  there;  Uriel 
warns  Gabriel,  who  thwarts  Satan's  first  attack.  V.-\TII. 
Raphael  warns  Adam;  relates  the  story  of  Satan's  rebellion  and 
fall;  gives  an  account  of  the  Creation.  IX.  Satan  succeeds  in 
his  plot.  X.  Adam  and  Eve  sentenced;  Satan's  return  and  ac- 
count of  his  victory;  remorse  of  Adam  and  Eve.  XI,  XII. 
Michael,  sent  to  drive  Man  from  Paradise,  shows,  in  vision,  the 
history  of  the  race;  the  expulsion. 


152 

IV.    Last  Works  of  Milton 

1.  Paradise  Regained 

(a)  Several  subjects  from  the  life  of  Christ  in  Milton's 
list  of  1640-1641;  subject  of  Christ's  victory  over  Satan 
implicit  in  Paradise  Lost;  the  poem  probably  written  1665- 
1667;  published  1671. 

(b)  Sources  and  analogues  in  the  book  of  Job,  which  Milton 
regarded  as  an  epic;  in  Giles  Fletcher's  Christ's  Victorie 
(of  value  only  as  an  analogue);  and  in  the  bibhcal  account 
of  Satan's  temptation  of  Christ. 

(c)  The  poem,  which  is  in  four  books,  is  less  effective  than 
Paradise  Lost  because  of  its  artificiality  in  comparison 
with  the  biblical  narrative;  its  consequent  failure  to  be 
convincing;  the  lack  of  creative  imagination;  the  tyranny 
of  religious  dogma. 

2.  Samson  Agonistes 

(a)  Published  1671;  this  subject  also  included  in  the  list 
of  1641,  and  in  his  choice  of  Greek  tragedy  as  his  model 
Milton  realizes  his  earUer  inclination  toward  drama;  not 
intended  as  an  acting  drama. 

(6)  Sources  and  analogues:  Besides  the  narrative  in  Judges 
(chapters  xiii-xvi),  a  drama  by  Vondel  on  the  same  subject 
(1660)  is  analogous,  though  not  a  true  source. 
(c)  Significance  consists  in  the  analogy  between  the  theme 
and  the  mood  of  Milton  after  the  Restoration;  in  the  extra- 
ordinary variety  and  effectiveness  of  the  versification; 
in  the  freedom  from  ornament  and  allusion,  on  which  com- 
pare the  Elizabethan  prodigality  of  the  early  poems. 

3.  To  this  period  also  belong  a  text  book  on  Grammar,  a  History 
of  Britain  (1670),  and  the  second  edition  of  the  Minor  Poenis, 
with  some  additions  (including  poems  of  the  second  period), 
1673. 


154 

Studies 

1.  On  the  early  poems 

(a)  Find  illustrations  in  the  texts  of  the  characteristics  named  in 

the  Outline. 

(6)  Compare  Comus  with  other  masques,  e.  g.  one   of   Jonson's. 

(c)  Relation  of  these  poems  to  Elizabethan  poetry. 

{d)  Milton's  use  of  Nature. 

2.  On  the  works  of  the  second  period 

(a)  From  the  sonnets,  the  Latin  elegies  (i,  v,  vi,  vii),  the  Latin 
epistle  to  his  father,  the  Reason  of  Church  Government,  summarize 
the  autobiographical  material. 

(6)  Make  an  outline  of  Areopagiiica,  testing  its  value  as  argument. 
(c)  Characteristics  of  Milton's  prose;  on  which  compare  Bacon. 

3.  On  Paradise  Lost 

(a)  The  best_books  to  read  are  the  first,  the  second,  a,nd  the  ninth. 
(6)  Compare  \\{t\i~lYi^'Aeneid  as  to  management  of  the  action; 
unity  of  the  plot ;  use  of  epic  conventions;  heroic  simile;  the  speeches. 

(c)  Compare  the  verse  wdth  that  of  Hamlet  or  The  Tempest. 

(d)  Study  the  characterization  of  the  speakers  in  Pandemonium 
andt  he  construction  of  the  speeches  as  arguments. 

(e)  (Milton's  diction  as  compared  with  Shakspere'sy 

(/)  Milton's  use  of  biblical  material.     Of  classical  allusion. 
(g)  Has  the  poem  a  hero? 

4.  On  Samson  Agonistes 

(a)  Read   Milton's  introduction  and  discuss  the  relation  of  the 

drama  to  Greek  tragedy. 

(6)  Compare  it  with  Comus  as  to  action,  verse,  style.     Criticize 

Macaulay's  comparison. 

(c)  The  autobiographical  significance. 

{d)  Passages  from  Milton's  works  illustrating  his  attitude  toward 

the  drama. 


156 

References:  The  best  brief  biographies  are  those  by  Pattison  {English  Men  of 
Letters)  and  Raleigh  (Putnam).  Professor  Saintsbury's  essay  in  Cambridge 
VII.  108-161;  Com-thope  III.  378^21,  and  the  Introduction  (Moody)  to  the 
Cambridge  edition  of  the  Poetical  Works  supply  both  biographical  and  critical 
material.  For  the  prose,  the  most  convenient  edition  is  that  in  the  Riverside 
Literature  Series  (Lockwood) ;  this  also  contains  several  early  biographies;  see 
also  Morley's  selections  from  the  prose,  valuable  for  the  autobiographical  pas- 
sages, and  Corson's  Introduction  to  Milton  (Macmillan).  The  best  single  volume 
edition  of  the  poems  is  the  Cambridge  (Houghton),  which  is  noteworthy  for  the 
separate  introductions  to  the  several  poems.  On  the  verse,  see  this  book  and  also 
Corson,  Primer  of  English  Verse,  193-220.  The  great  authority  on  Milton  is 
Masson,  The  Life  of  John  Milton,  six  volumes.  Of  the  innumerable  essays,  those 
by  Lowell,  Macaulay,  Dowden,  Leslie  Stephen  may  be  consulted.  Woodhull's 
The  Epic  of  Paradise  Lost  is  useful  for  its  summaries  of  plots  of  analogous  works. 


158 
JOHN   DRYDEN    (1631-1700) 

I.     Dramatic  works 

I.  Most  of  these  belong  to  the  period  1665-1678 

(a)  Heroic  plays,  such  as  The  Conquest  of  Granada,  Aureng- 
zebe,  etc.;  written  in  couplets;  unreal  in  character  and  situ- 

j         ation,    stressing    love    interest,    showing    "poetic    justice"; 
style  full  of  bombast  and  rant. 

(6)  Comedies,  such  as  Marriage  a  la  Mode,  The  Spanish 
Friar,  etc.;  comedies  of  manners  marked  by  coarseness; 
prose  and  verse. 

(c)  Imitations  of  Shakspere,  such  as  All  for  Love  {Antony 
and  Cleopatra);  in  blank  verse;  conventional  style;  "heroic" 
rather  than  dramatic.  ^ 

II.     Poetical  Works 

1.  For  the  most  part  written  in  the  heroic  couplet,  in  the  satires 
usually  close  but  in  the  later  works,  such  as  the  Fables,  flexible 
in  management  of  pauses  and  rhymes,  often  with  six  accents. 
Few  lyrics  apart  from  the  Odes.  Distinguished  for  clarity  of 
form,  epigram,  wit,  satire,  verse-essay. 

2.  Satirical  and  Controversial  poems 

(a)  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  1681;  second  part,  in  collabora- 
tion with  Tate,  1682.  A  political  satire,  based  on  biblical 
story  used  as  allegory  of  political  conditions ;  notable  for 
portraits  of  Absalom  (Alonmouth),  Achitophel  (Shaftesbury), 
and  Zimri  (Buckingham). 

(6)  MacFlecknoe,  1682;  a  literary  satire,  forerunner  of  the 
Dunciad. 

(c)  The  Medal,  1682;  political  satire  attacking  Shaftesbury. 

(d)  Religio  Laid,  1682;  verse-essay  defending  Anglican 
church. 

(e)  The  Hind  and  the  Panther,  1687;  a  beast  fable  (compare 
Mother  Hubberds  Talc);  apology  for  Catholics  (Hind)  as 
against  Anglicans  (Panther) ;  other  characters  are  the  Wolf 
(Calvinists)  and  Fox  (Socinians). 


% 


160 

3-  Odes  and  Lyrics 

(a)  Ode  to  the  Memory  of  Mrs.  Anne  Killigrew,  1685, 
(6)  Song  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  1687. 
(c)   Alexander's  Feast,  1697. 

{d)  Lyrics  from  the  dramas,  and  many  occasional  poems. 
4.  Translations 

(a)  These  very  numerous;  differ  in  important  respects  from 
the  translations  of  the  Elizabethan  period;  show  increasing 
interest  in  translation  characteristic  of  Classicism. 
(6)  Chief  translations:  Eclogues,  Georgics,  Aeneid  of  Virgil, 
1697;  many  selections  from  Ovid;  others  from  Juvenal, 
Horace,  Lucretius,  Theocritus,  etc.;  the  Fables  (1700), 
include  five  translations  from  Chaucer  (one  the  pseudo- 
Chaucerian  Flower  and  the  Leaf);  three  from  Boccaccio; 
others  from  Ovid;  first  book  of  the  Iliad,  etc. 
m.     Criticism 

1.  As  a  critic,  Dryden  notable  for  good  sense,  frank  apprecia- 
tion of  earlier  English  poets,  openness  of  mind.  His  prose 
marked  by  colloquial  ease,  simple  directness,  freedom  from 
pedantry  and  all  affectation;  first  modern  prosaist. 

2.  Most  of  his  criticism  contained  in  his  Prefaces,  such  as, 
{a)  Essays    on    Dramatic    Poesy,    1664,    1668.     Of    Heroic 
Plays,   1672.     These   defend   the  English  stage  against  the 
French,  show  his  appreciation  of  Shakspere  and  advocate 
rhyme  in  tragedy.     Chief  sources  Aristotle  and  Corneille. 
(6)  Preface  to  the  Fables,  1700;  distinguished  for  view  of 
Chaucer,  on  which  he  differs  from  most  Augustan  criticism, 
and  for  the  comparison  between  Homer  and  Virgil, 
(c)  Other  important  Prefaces  are  those  to  his  translation 
of  Virgil  (on  epic  poetry) ;  to  the  translation  of  Ovid  (theory 
of   translation) ;   to   the   collection  of   poems   called  Sylvae 
(theory  of  translation) ;  and  to  the  translations  from  Juvenal, 
etc.,  (remarks  on  Milton  and  Spenser) 


/ 


162 

Studies 

1.  How  do  Dryden's  lyrics  differ  from  those  of  the  Elizabethan  period? 

2.  Compare  the  portraits  of  Absalom,  Aehitophel,  Zimri,  with  those  of 
the  Canterbury  pilgrims  in  Chaucer's  Prologue. 

3.  The  couplet,  as  practised  by  Dryden. 

4.  Dryden's   Palamon   and   Arcite  compared   with   Chaucer's    Knight's 
Tale. 

5.  Dryden's  view  of  Chaucer  and  Shakspere. 

6.  Dryden's  dramatic  theory. 

7.  The  prose  style  of  Dryden  (compare  Bacon  and  Milton). 

8.  Differences  between  Dryden's  translations  (see  the  Prefaces  as  well 
as  some  of  the  work)  and  those  of  the  Elizabethan  period. 

References:  The  best  brief  biographies  are  those  by  Saintsbury  {English  Men 
of  Letters)  and  Leslie  Stephen  (Dictionary  of  National  Biography) ;  Essays  by  John- 
son, Lowell,  and  others;  Courthope  IIL  482-533  (poetry)  and  IV.  397-453 
(drama);  Garnett,  Age  of  Dryden,  7-4L  The  Preface  to  the  Fables  is  reprmted 
in  Bronson's  English  Essays;  a  convenient  edition  of  the  dramatic  criticism  is 
published  in  Holt's  English  Readings  (edited  by  Strunk) ;  for  the  full  body  of  his 
criticism  see  the  edition  by  Ker,  published  by  the  Oxford  University  Press. 


164 
CONTEMPORARIES    OF    MILTON   AND    DRYDEN 

I.     Poets 

1.  Andrew  Marvell  (1621-1678) 

(a)  Assisted  Milton  as  Latin  Secretary  under  Cromwell. 

(6)  Garden  Poems,  Bermudas,  Ode  on  Cromwell's  Return,  etc., 

written    about    1650,    published    1681,    show   great   lyrical 

power,  sincere  love  for  nature,  mastery  of  form. 

(c)  Satires,    written    about    1670,    published    1689;    heroic 

couplet. 

2.  Samuel  Butler  (1612-1680) 

(a)  A  satirist  of  his  times,  rather  than  a  partisan. 
(6)  Hudihras,  1663,  1664,  1678;  a  mock-heroic  poem  in  the 
manner  of  Don  Quixote,  written  in  four-accent  couplets, 
and  attacking  the  Presbyterians;  uses  caricature  rather  than 
characterization;  is  notable  for  many  contributions  to  our 
stock  of  familiar  quotations;  suggests  the  mock-heroic 
genre  culminating  in  Swift  and  Pope, 
(c)  Many  other  satires  and  prose  works. 

3.  John  Oldham  (1653-1683) 

(a)  Wrote  odes  to  Jonson  and  others. 

(6)  .Famous  for  satires,  marked  by  invective  and  coarseness, 

but  WTitten  in  vigorous  style. 

4.  Lyric  poets. 

(a)  John  Wilmot,  Earl  of  Rochester  (1 647-1680) 

(6)  Dryden,   Otway,   Sedley,   and  others  introduced  IjTics 

into  their  dramas. 

5.  The  Essay  on  Translated  Verse,  by  the  Earl  of  Roscommoa, 
is  an  illustration  of  the  growing  popularity  of  the  verse-essay. 


.  166 

II.     Dramatists 

1.  No  authorized  dramatic  productions  were  made  between  1642 
and  the  Restoration.  In  1656  Davenant  produced  The  Siege  of 
Rhodes,  an  "entertainment  of  declamation  and  music'.'  having 
some  of  the  features  of  modern  opera;  in  1660  he  opened  a  theatre. 
The  French  stage  now  replaced  the  Elizabethan:  scene  shifting, 
re-arrangement  of  auditorium  and  stage,  introduction  of  actresses. 
The  plays  gave  greater  attention  to  the  unities,  sought  elevation 
of  style  and  sentiment,  used  couplet  (blank  verse  being  thought 
"low");  subjects  dealt  with  politics  and  love. 

2.  Besides  Dryden's,  chief  heroic  plays  were  by  Roger  Boyle 
(Mustapha,  1665),  Nathaniel  Lee  {Nero,  1675),  Thomas  Otway 
{Don  Carlos,  1675). 

3.  Tragedy 

(a)  Continues  romantic  tragedy  of  the  later  Elizabethans. 
{b)  Thomas   Otway   wrote   tragedies  in   blank  verse:    The 
Orphan,  1680;  Venice  Preserved,  1682. 
(c)  Nicholas  Rowe,  Jane  Shore,  1714. 

4.  Comedy 

(a)  Prose  comedies  of  manners;  brilliant  in  wit  and  style; 
subject  usually  illicit  love;  indecent  in  language. 
(6)  William  Wycherley:  The  Country  Wife,  1673;  The  Plain 
Dealer,  1674;  influenced  by  Moliere;  coarse  and  brutal,  but 
^  of  great  power.  ^ 

(c)  WilUam  Congreve  (1670-1729):  wrote  both  comedy 
and  tragedy;  intimate  with  Swift  and  Pope;  best  tragedy 
The  Mourning  Bride,  1697;  comedies,  such  as  Lbve  for  Love, 
1695,  and  The  Way  of  the  World,  1700,  marked  by  excellence 
of  plot,  scintillating  wit,  skill  in  portraiture,  coarseness. 

(d)  George  Farquhar,  The  Beaux  Stratagem,  1707. 

(e)  Comedies  were  also  written  by  Aphra  Behn,  Mrs.  Manly, 
and  Mrs.  Centlivre. 


168 


III.     Prose  Fiction 
I.  Romances 


(a)  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  romances 
of  the  Arcadia  type  continued,  with  repeated  editions  of 
Amadis  and  Guy  of  Warwick. 

(b)  The  French  heroic  romances  of  Scudery  and  La  Cal- 
prenede  were  read  in  th€  original  and  in  numerous  transla- 
tions. These  differed  from  earlier  romances  in  greater 
stress  laid  on  gallantry,  on  decorum;  marked  by  bombastic 
speeches,  influenced  heroic  plays  of  Dryden  and  others. 

(c)  In  England,  Argenis  (1621),  a  romance  written,  in  Latin 
by  John  Barclay,  combined  elements  of  the  type  of  Arcadia 
with  disquisitions  on  problems  of  government  and  allegory  of 

.  European  history  of  his  time;  translated  into  various  tongues 
it  exerted  great  influence  on  the  heroic  romances.  Best  Eng- 
lish example  of  heroic  romance  is  Boyle's  Parthenissa,  1654. 

(d)  These  romances  of  extreme  length,  filled  with  episodes; 
allegorical  presentation  of  contemporary  persons  and  events; 
literary  circles  founded  by  "the  matchless  Orinda"  and  Mar- 
garet of  Newcastle  discussed  them. 

2.  The  reaction  against  romance 

(a)  Don  Quixote  translated  1612,  1620,  1687;  Rabelais 
translated  by  Urquhart,  1653. 

(6)  Taste  for  ''novels,"  often  called  "secret  histories,"  in- 
creased after  the  Restoration.  These  of  moderate  length, 
more  realistic,  appealed  to  the  Hking  for  scandal;  written 
usually  by  "a  person  of  Quality"  or  said  to  be  translated 
"from  the  French." 

(c)  Congreve  in  his  short  story  "Love  and  Duty  Recon- 
cil'd"  1692,  distinguished  between  romance  and  novel,  and 
wrote  a  tale  of  gallantry  in  slightly  realistic  vein. 
id)  Orponoka  (1688),  by  Aphra  Behn,  combines  strong 
humanitarian  interest  (cf.  Rousseau)  with  style  of  heroic 
novel;  purpose  to  contrast  state  of  nature  with  civilization 
and  to  attack  slavery. 


170 

John  Bunyan  (1628-1688) 

(a)  Next  to  Dryden,  most  important  influence  on  develop- 
ment of  modern  prose.  His  style  simple  and  direct,  effect- 
ive because  subordinated  to  the  writer's  purpose;  intense 
earnestness  clothed  in  the  homely  diction  of  the  Bible. 
(6)  Chief  works:  pamphlets  of  a  controversial  nature,  1656- 
1660;  Grace  Abounding,  an  autobiography,  1665;  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  part  I,  1678;  part  II,  1684;  Life  and  Death  of 
Mr.  Badman  (reverses  pilgrimage  of  Christian)  1680;  The 
Holy  War,  1682.  About  sixty  works  written  by  Bunyan. 
(c)  Pilgrim's  Progress  has  many  analogues,  such  as  the 
various  dream  allegories  of  the  fifteenth  century;  Piers 
Plowman;  Lydgate's  translation.  The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Life 
of  Man,  from  the  French  of  de  Guileville.  It  is  radically 
different  from  The  Faerie  Queene.  The  source  is  in  the 
New  Testament  conception  of  hfe,  and  in  Bunyan's  own 
"vision." 

{d)  The  significance  of  Bunyan's  work  in  relation  to  the 
novel  is  in  its  use  of  simple  narrative  in  place  of  older  arti- 
ficiality of  plot  and  style;  in  its  abundant  use  of  detail 
to  give  the  effect  of  realism;  in  the  genius  by  which  abstrac- 
tions are  given  the  reality  of  living  men;  in  its  knowledge 
of  the  human  heart  and  of  life  in  the  English  villages. 

Other  writings  in  prose  that  contributed  to  the  novel 

(a)  The  character  books.  These  owe  something  to  the 
"characters"  of  Theophrastus  (373-284  B.  C).  In  England, 
Joseph  Hall's  Characters  of  Virtues  and  Vices,  1608;  Thomas 
Qverbury's  Characters,  1614;  John  Earle's  Microcosmo- 
graphie,  1628,  were  collections  of  character  sketches,  like 
essays,  containing  little  narrative  but  important  in  the 
transition  from  stories  of  incident  to  the  novel  of  character. 
These  pioneers  were  followed  by  a  host  of  imitators,  among 
them  Samuel  Butler,  and  reached  complete  development 
in  The  Spectator. 
(6)  The   new   interest   in   biography,    shown   by    Walton's 


172 

Lives,  etc.;  the  autobiographies  and  memoirs,  such  as  those 
by  Margaret  of  Newcastle,  Bunyan,  Pepys  (Diary  1660- 
1669;  pubUshed  1828),  Evelyn  (Diary  1641-1706;  published 
1818);  the  short  stories  in  form  of  letters,  such  as  The 
Letters  of  Lindamifa. 
IV.     Other  Prose,  1660-1700 

1.  Scientific  prose 

(a)  Isaac  Newton,  Principia,  1687. 

(b)  John  Locke,  Essay  Concerning  the  Human  Understand- 
ing, 1690. 

2.  Criticism 

(a)  In  Jonson  is  to  be  found  early  statement  of  the  theory 
of  "rules"  as  true  tests  of  literary  values;  hke  him,  Alilton 
acknowledges  allegiance  to  Aristotle  and  Horace. 
(h)  Other  contributions  to  neo-classic  theory  in  works  of 
Hobbes,  Cowley,  and  Davenant. 

(c)  Highest  type  of  criticism  before  the  eighteenth  century 
is  found  in  Dryden. 

(d)  Criticism  of  the  drama  is  found  in  Thomas  Rymer, 
notorious  for  his  attacks  on  Shakspere's  plays;  and  Jeremy 
Collier,  whose  *S7?orf  View  of  the  Irmnorality  and  Prof  oneness 
of  the  English  Stage  (1698)  reminds  us  of  Gosson  and  pre- 
cipitated hot  discussion  and  some  reforms. 

3.  History 

(a)  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  wrote  his  great  His- 
tory of  the  Rebellion  near  the  end  of  his  Hfe  (died  1674); 
this  work,  published  1702-1704,  has  been  described  as  an 
"historical  epic." 

(6)  Gilbert  Burnet,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  (1643-1715)  wrote 
a  History  of  the  Reformation  (published  1679,  1714),  and 
History  of  his  Own  Times  (published  1723-1734). 


174 

References:  Convenient  handbooks  covering  the  period  are  The  Age  of  Milton, 
by  J.  H.  B.  Masterman  and  The  Age  of  Dryden,  by  Richard  Garnett.  For  the 
Restoration  drama  see  Ward,  History  of  English  Dramatic  Literature,  III/  277- 
518;  Courthope  IV.  386-454;  Chase,  The  English  Heroic  Play;  Garnett,  Age 
of  Dryden  76-148,  Gosse;  English  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  38-72. 
On  prose  fiction  consult  Jusserand,  English  Novel  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare, 
347-418;  Canby,  Short  Story  in  English,  156-176;  Cross,  English  Novel,  13-27. 
For  Bunyan  add  Cambridge  VII.  188-202;  Froude  in  English  Men  of  Letters; 
Dowden  in  Puritan  and  Anglican.  Summaries  of  the  plots  of  the  important 
French  romances  are  in  Dunlop,  History  of  Fictio?i,  II.  379-394;  403-462. 


17G 

PROSE   FROM    1700   TO    1740 

I.     General  characteristics  of  English  prose  1700-1740 

1.  Marked  by  criticism  of  life  as  distinguished  from  the  Arca- 
dianism  of  the  sixteenth  ccntiiry;  by  its  appeal  to  the  intellect 
rather  than  to  feeling  or  imagination;  by  the  subordination  of 
style  to  purpose.  * 

2.  Follows  the  example  of  Dryden  in  colloquial  ease  and  simplic- 
ity of  dieljon. 

3.  Exerted  important  influence  on  the  development  of  journaUsm 
and  of  the  modern  novel. 

II.     Daniel  Defoe  (1660  or  1661-1731) 

1.  Style  marked  by _ simplicity,  discursiveness,  carelessness,  mi- 
nute  detail^  narrative  skill.  His  use  of  the  picaresque  in  his 
novels  tends  to  greater  unity  of  plot;  his  characters  are  drawn 
from  real  life;  his  attention  to  detail  gives  verisimilitude. 

2.  Chief  works 

(a)  Pamphlets,  such  as  The^ShortestWaiiynth^ 
^1702)  which  according  to  Defoe  was  intended  to  bring  the 
High  Church  party  into  ridicule  by  presenting  extreme  view 
of  their  position;  caused  imprisonment  of  the  author, 
(6)  Periodicals.  Defoe  was  connected  with  many  news- 
papers, chiefly  in  the  years  1716-1726.  Earher  than  tliis 
(1704-1713)  he  had  anticipated  The  Taller  and  The  Spec- 
tator in  his  Review  of  the  Affairs  of  France,  a  small  four-page 
quarto,  in  which  he  introduced  ''  Advice  from  the  Scandalous 
Club"  and  also  editorial  comment  on  European  and  national 
affairs. 

(c)  Prose  fiction  (1719-1725).  Defoe  wrote  many  short 
fictions,  such  as  The  Apparition  of  Mrs.  Veal  (1706).  Besides 
Robinson  Crusoe  (1719-1720),  which  is  a  j:ealistic_Jiai:eL-Df 
incident,  The  History  of  the  Plague  in  London  (1722)  shows 
skill  in  managing  details  so  as  to  produce  the  effect  of  autlieit 
tic_history;  Captain  Singleton  (1720),  Moll  Flanders  (1722), 
Colonel  Jack   (1722),   Roxana   (1724)    and  Jonathan    Wild 


O^^aaXX^^^^ 


Qj^jsjiX.' 


178 

(1725),  are  aU^icaresillie. stories,  purporting  to  be  biographies, 
interest  mainly  in  incident  though  at  times  showing  skill 
in  character  analysis. 
ni.     Jonathan  Swift  (1667-1745) 

1.  Style  characterized  by  force,  plainness,  use  of  invective  and 
sarcasm,  coarseness;  favorite  forms  are  allegory,  mock-hecoic 
prose  epic,  elaborate  irony. 

2.  The^JBxUJle  of  the  Books  fl697)  deals  with  the  famous  contro- 
versy over  the  relative  merits  of  Ancient  and  Modern  writers;  this 
was  introduced  by  Sir  ^^'illiam  Temple,  who  was  opposed  by  Rich- 
ard Bentley  (Epistles  of  Phalaris,  1697);  Swift  defended  Temple. 
S.^TJie  Tale  of  a  Tub  (1698,  published  1704)  religious  satire 
under  the  form  of  allegory. 

3.  Gullivers  Travels  (1726);  satire  of  politics  and  learning;  alle- 
gory remarkable  for  the  way  in  which  a  simple  narrative  which 
is  loved  by  children  conceals  the  fiercest  satire. 

4.  Other  works:  Bickerstaff  Papers  (1708);  Drapier's  Letters 
(1724);  A  Modest  Proposal  (1729).  The  Journal_to . Stella  was 
written  1710-1713.     Swift  also  wrote  some  poems. 

IV.     Sir  Richard  Steele  (1672-1729)  and  Joseph  Addison  (1672-1719) 

1.  Their  most  important  work  found  in  their  collaboration  on 
the  periodicals:  The  Taller  (1709-1711)  and  The  Spectator  (1711- 
1714).  Their  style  marked  by  humor,  simplicity,  absence  of 
pedantry  and  of  sarcasm,  skill  in  portraiture.  Their  aim,  the 
reformation  of  manners,  but  their  methods  very  different  from 
those  of  Swift.  The  proportion  of  narrative  in  their  work  is 
small,  but  the  careful  portraits  of  "characters"  contribute  to  the 
development  of  the  novel. 

2.  Steele   also   important  for   his   contributions   to   the   drama, 
of  which  The  Tender  Husband  (1705)  and  The  Conscious   Lovers^* 
(1722)  are  examples. 

3.  Addison  also  significant  for  his  contributions  to  criticism, 
chiefly  found  in  The  Spectator;  for  some  poems,  such  as  The 
Campaign  (1704);  and  for  the  Roman  play,  written  according  to 
neo-classic  standards,  Cato  (1713). 


180 

V.     Other  prose  of  the  period 

1.  John  Arbuthnot  (16G7-1735),  a  member  of  the  Scriblerus  Club, 
wrote  The  History  of  John  Bull  (1713),  an  attack  on  ]\Iarlborough, 
and  Memoirs  of  Martin  Scriblerus  (1741),  which  ridicules  false 
learning. 

2.  John  Dennis  (1657-1733);  a  writer  of  bombastic  verse  and  of 
man}'  tragedies;  a  dramatic  critic,  chiefly  of  Shakspere;  attacked 
by  Pope, 

3.  Colley  Gibber  (1671-1757)  a  famous  actor  who  also  wrote 
dramas  and  "improved"  Shakspere;  poet  laureate;  lampooned 
by  Pope;  best  work  his  Apology,  1740. 

4.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Alontagu  (1689-1762)  and  Philip  Stanhope, 

Earl  of  Chesterfield  (1694-1773)  are  remembered  for  their  letters. 

^.  Writers  of  theology  and  philosophy:  Bishop  Atterbury;  Lord 
/Shaftesbury  (Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  etc.,  1711);  Bernard 

de   Mandeyille    (Fahle  of  the   Bees,    1723);    Lord^  Bqliogbroke ; 

George  Berkeley;  Joseph  Butler  (Analogy  of  Religion,  1736). 


182 

Studies 

1.  Read  a  portion  of  the  Journal  of  the  Plague  or  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
noting  the  characteristics  of  the  style;  the  use  of  detail  as  a  means 
of  gaining  verisimilitude;  the  presence  or  absence  of  description,  of 
character  analysis,  etc.  Robinson  Crusoe  may  be  compared  with  the 
narrative  of  Selkirk  (in  Captain  Edward  Cook's  Voyage  to  the  South 
Seas,  1712);  note  that  many  romantic  incidents  are  omitted;  how 
then  does  Defoe  differ  from  most  writers  of  travel  stories? 

2.  Contrast  Swift's  use  of  allegpry  with  Spenser's  and  Bunyan's;  his 
realism  with  Defoe's  and  Bunyan's;  his  mock-heroic  devices  with 
those  of  The  Rape  of  the  Lock.  Swift's  A  Modest  Proposal  may  be 
compared  with  DeQuincey's  Murder  as  a  Fine  Art. 

3.  Addison:  (a)  The  relation  of  the  Coverley  papers  to  the  novel;  (6) 
the  "character"  as  written  by  Addison;  (c)  the  portraits  in  Chaucer's 
Prologue  compared  with  Addison's;  (d)  eighteenth  century  life  as 
seen  in  The  Spectator;  (e)  Addison's  style  compared  with  Swift's; 
(/)  elements  in  Addison's  theory  of  criticism. 

References:  For  Defoe,  see  Minto's  Ldfe  in  English  Men  of  Letters,  especially 
chapter  ix;  Stephen,  in  Hours  in  a  Library  I.  For  Swift,  Stephen  in  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography  and  English  Men  of  Letters;  Selections  from  Swift,  in 
English  Readings  (Holt).  Addison:  Johnson,  in  Lives  of  the  Poets;  Court  hope, 
in  English  Men  of  Letters;  Stephen,  in  Dictionary  of  National  Biography;  Thack- 
eray, English  Humourists  and  Henry  Esmond;  Addison's  papers  on  Milton  are 
edited  by  Cook  (Ginn);  On  the  entire  period  consult  the  histories  of  English 
literature  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Perry  and  by  Gosse,  and  Dennis,  The 
Age  of  Pope. 


184 

ALEXANDER   POPE    (1688-1744) 
I.     Classicism 

I.  Phases  in  the  history  of  the  classics 

(a)  Humanism,  as  illustrated  by  the  work  of  Erasmus, 
Ascham,  etc. 

(b)  Romantic  use  of  classical  material,  shown  in  the  classi- 
cal allusions  and  myths  in  Spenser;  in  such  poems  as  Venus 
and  Adonis  and  Hero  and  Leander;  in  such  dramas  as  Antony 
and  Cleopatra. 

(c)  The  application  of  the  literary  theories  of  Aristotle 
and  Horace  to  English  literature,  shown  in  Sidney's  criti- 
cism of  the  drama,  in  Jonson's  dramas  and  critical  theory, 
and  in  Dryden. 

(d)  The  development  of  a  theory  of  "kinds"  and  of  ''rules" 
in  which  the  influence  of  French  classicism  is  apparent, 
tending  to  a  "pseudo-classicism"  which  dominated  English 
literature  during  much  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

3.  Characteristics  of  tlie_poetry;^fjtli^3ge_of^ 
(a)  The  new  conception  of  'Svit." 

(6)  The  use  of  the  heroic  couplet  as  the  ideal  stanza;  this 
tends  to  epigram  and  stresses  clarity  and  form. 

(c)  The  ''tyranny  of  the  epithet." 

(d)  Preference  for  the  general  rather  than  the  concrete; 
the  type,  not  the  individual.  This  is  shown  both  in  charac- 
ter analysis  and  in  description. 

(e)  The  lack  of  the  subjective,  personal  note  characteristic  of 
earlier  and  later  periods.  There  are  few  sonnets  and  lyrics. 
(0  Conventional  use  of  classical  allusions. 

(g)  The  increase  in  didacticism. 

{h)  "Fancy"  takes  the  place  of  imagination;  romantic 
"extravagance"  is  not  good  form;  "good  sense"  is  the  re- 
quirement. 

(i)  Poetry  and  drama  must  conform  to  the  "rules." 
3.  Literary  types:  satire;  co;iiedy_j)f  manners;  the  ode;  niQck- 
.  heroic  "epics";  "translations"  of  the  classics.  ~~ 


186 

II.     Main  phases  of  the  work  of  Pope 

1.  His  view  of  poetry.  Found  chiefly  in  the  Essay  on  Criticism 
(1711),  which  shows  the  influence  of  Horace  and  Boileau.  Car- 
dinal principles  center  about  injunctions  to  follow  '^Nature";  to 
use  the  ancients  as  standards;  and  to  pay  supreme  attention  to 
nianner  of  expression. 

2.  Satire  of  contemporary  life  and  manners 

(a)  The  Rape  of  the  Lock  (1712,  and,  with  the  addition  of 
the  ''machinery"  of  the  sylphs,  1714).  Illustrates  comedy 
of  manners  in  form  of  mock-heroic  epic.  Compare  comedies 
of  Congreve.  The  quarrel  with  Addison. 
(6)  The  Dunciad  (1728,  1742,  1743).  Also  mock-epic; 
satire  ostensibly  of  the  poetasters,  but  marred  by  personal 
spite.  Theobald  and  Cibber.  The  elaborate  machinery 
of  mystification.  For  analogues  compare  MacFlecknoe; 
The  Battle  of  the  Books,  etc. 

(c)  The  Satires,  with  the  prefatory  Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuth- 
not  (1735).  The  Epistle  is  a  defence  of  Pope,  also  famous 
for  the  portrait  of  Addison  (Atticus). 

3.  The  translations  and  imitations 

(a)  The  Pastorals  (1709,  but  probably  written  earlier); 
these  imitate  the  Shepheards  Calender  in  their  application  to 
the  seasons  but  are  wholly  different  in  style;  they  are  intro- 
duced by  an  essay  on  Pastoral  poetry. 

(6)  Various  imitations  and  translations  based  on  Chaucer 
and  Ovid,  following  Dryden. 

(c)  Horace  is  imitated  in  the  Satires. 

(d)  Th'e  great  translations:  Iliad  (1715-1720);  Odyssey 
(1725-1726).  These  ''translate"  Homer  into  terms  of  Eng- 
lish life  of  the  eighteenth  century;  illustrate  the  theory  of 
following  "Nature,"  as  well  as  Pope's  power  of  putting 
into  perfect  form  material  not  original  with  him;  and  appeal 
to  the  taste  of  the  time  for  pseudo-classicism.  Contrast 
the  Elizabethan  translations. 


188 

The  verse-essays 

(a)  The  tendency  shown  by  the  Essay  on  Criticism  to  put 
into  the  heroic  couplet  matter  usually  treated  in  prose  finds 
illustration  in  the  later  Essay  on  Man  (1732-1734)  and  the 
Moral  Essays  (1731-1735).  The  first  shows  the  influence 
of  Bolingbroke,  and  while  vague  and  contradictory  as  a 
system  of  thought  contains  some  of  Pope's  finest  verse; 
the  second  combines  ''philosophy"  with  personal  satire. 

Experiments  and  miscellanies 

(a)   Windsor  Forest  (1713)  is  a  good  illustration  of.  the  con- 
ventional attitude  toward  Nature. 
(6)   Eloisa  to  Abelard  (1717) 

(c)  Elegy  to  the  Memory  of  an  Unfortunate  Lady  (1717) 

(d)  Edition  of  Shakspere  (1725). 


190 

Studies 

I.  Fintl    illustrations    of   the    characteristics    of    pseudo-classic    poetry 

named  above. 
2/\Vhat  does  Pope  include  in  his  conception  of  "Nature?" 
y<3.  Summarize,  so  far  as  you  can,  the  main  principles  of  his  theory  of 
^    poetry.     Compare  with  Horace's  Ars  Poetica. 

4.  How  far  docs  the  Rape  of  the  Lock  observe  the  "rules"  for  epic? 

5.  Compare  a  passage  from  Pope's  translation  of  Homer  with  the  cor- 
responding pasage  in  Chapman's  translation  and  point  out  the  differences. 
Compare  both  with  Cowper's  or  Bryant's  version  of  the  same  passage. 

6.  The  mock-epic  genre. 

References:  Discussions  of  pseudo-classic  diction,  themes,  and  theories  of 
literature  are  to  be  found  in  Lowell's  essays  on  Dryden  and  Pope;  in  Beers, 
English  Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  chapter  ii;  Pellissier,  Literary 
Movement  in  France,  chapter  i;  Stephen,  English  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century;  Courthope  V.  chapter  i,  and  the  section  on  Pope.  See  also  Babbitt, 
The  New  Laokoon,  Part  I. 

On  Pope,  see  also  the  Life,  by  Stephen,  in  English  Men  of  Letters;  Courthope 
V.  156-185;  251-271;  Dennis,  Age  of  Pope,  27-64;  Gosse,  English  Literature 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  108-134;  Johnson,  in  Lives  of  the  Poets,  presents  the 
view  of  a  man  almost  contemporary. 


.i 


192 

POETS    CONTEMPORARY    WITH    POPE 

I.     Writers  of  Didactic  Poetry 

1.  This  school  Augustan  in  style  and  in  fondness  for  didactic 
themes;  poems  analogous  to  the  Geologies  of  Virgil;  blank  verse. 

2.  James  Thomson  (1700-1748) 

(a)  The  Seasons  (1725-1730)  in  blank  verse  and  diction 
imitative  of  Milton;  real  observation  of  Nature  but  without 
interpretation;  ''seasons"  idea  reminiscent  of  the  Shepheards 
Calender;  didactic;  episodic  and  loosely  knit,  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  a  development  of  a  short  poem  into  a  sort  of  epic ; 
narrative  element  introduced  in  little  idyls;  prodigious 
influence  in  Germany  and  France  and  the  founder  of  a 
special  "school"  in  England. 

(6)  Castle  of  Indolence  (1748,  but  written  many  years  before). 
Two  cantos  in  Spenserian  stanza,  the  first  important  example 
of  a  long  series  of  such  imitations  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Three  elements  in  the  poem :  a  burlesque  metrical  romance ; 
a  portion  of  it  singularly  accurate  in  its  suggestion  of  Spen- 
ser's  style;  in  the  second  canto,  conventional  Augustan 
didacticism,  praise  of  Liberty,  etc. 

3.  Poems  more  or  less  closely  related  to  The  Seasons 

(a)  Earlier  than  The  Seasons:  Cider,  by  John  Philips,  1706. 
(6)  Later 'poems:  The  Chase  (1735)  by  William  Somerville, 
a  poem  in  praise  of  hunting;  The  Art  of  Preserving  Health 
(1744),  by  John  Armstrong;  The  Pleasures  of  Imagination 
(1744),  by  Mark  Akenside,  notable  for  sententious,  philo- 
sophical  style  and  blank  verse  modelled  on  Milton's;  The 
Fleece  (1757),  by  John  Dyer. 


194 

4.  Didactic  poems  chiefly  religious 

(a)    Night    Thoughts    (1741-1745),    by   Edward   Young;   an 
answer  to  Pope^s  Essay  on  Man  written  in  ]\liltonic  blank 
verse.     Young  also  wrote  some  tragedies  (Busiris;  Revenge) 
and  a  satire  on  the  thirst  for  fame  ( The  Universal  Passi07i). 
(6)   The  A'ight  Piece  and  Hymn  to  Contentmentj  by  Thomas 
Parnell  (1679-1718)  show  influence  of  Milton  in  style  and 
in  the  use  of  the  four  accent  couplet.     Parnell  also  wrote 
a  narrative  poem,  The  Hennit,  in  the  heroic  couplet, 
(c)   The  Grave  (1743),  by  Robert  Blair;  about  200  lines  in 
blank  verse;  imaginative;  excellent  representative  of  a  genre 
popular  through  the  century. 
n.     Light  verse :  epistolary,  burlesque,  and  lyric 

1.  Ambrose  Philips  (1671-1749)  wrote  some  pastorals  which 
caused  a  dispute  with  Pope  and  led  to  Gay's  Shepherrrs  Week; 
a  sentimental  tragedy.  The  Distrest  Mother  (1712)  which  was 
puffed  by  Addison  in  the  Spectator;  and  was  notorious  for  his 
odes  to  babes  and  children  (' 'namby-pamby"). 

2.  John  Philips  (1676-1708)  is  remembered  for  The  Splendid 
Shilling;  Miltonic  blank  verse  applied  to  burlesque  on  poverty. 

3.  John  Pomfret  wrote  a  notable  poem,  The  Choice,  in  epistolary 
style  of  Horace  and  praising  simplicity  of  life,  language  and  style. 

^4.  Matth£BL-£riQrmiS61-1721)  wrote  many  artificial  but  witty 
lyrics;  a  tedious  didactic  poem  (Soloman) ;  and  Henry  and  Emma, 
"¥Vonventional /'translation''  of  The  Nut-Browne  Maid.' 

5.  -Tnh'^  ^-^y  (1685-1732)  is  distinguisliecl  for"  varieFy  of  achieve- 
ment: TJie  Shepherd's  Week  (1714)  contains  six  eclogues,  supposed 
to  imitate  The  Shepheards  Calender;  travesty  on  pastorals  but 
containing  some  realistic  touches;  Trivia  (1716),  mock-heroic 
account  of  journeyings  about  London  in  witty  and  realistic  style; 
Fables  (1727);  I^e^iiar'sO^era  (1728),  extremely  popular  burlesque 
of  Italian  opera;  lyrics  such  as  Black- Eyed  Susan. 

6.  William  Shenstone  (1714-1764)  wrote  a  Pastoral  Ballad  filled 
with  artificial  simplicity,  and  The  Schoolmistress  (1742),  a  bur- 
lesque of  Spenser's  stanza  and  epic  style,  but  notable  for  simple 
and  realistic  description. 


n 


196 

III.     Poets  influenced  by  Milton's  Minor  Poems 

1.  John  Dyer  (1700-1758),  Gron^ar  Hillsmd  Country  Walk. 

2.  Lady  Winchelsea  (1661-1720),  besides  many  poems  in  pseudo- 
classic  style,  wrote  several  short  poems  distinguished  for  apprecia- 
tion' of  nature :  The  Tree,  Nocturnal  Reverie,  To  the  Nightingale. 

References:  For  the  entire  period,  Dennis,  Age  of  Pope;  Gosse,  Eighteenth 
Century  Literature;  Courthope,  V.,  especially  chapters  ii,  iii,  v,  vii;  Pomfret's 
Choice  is  printed  at  pp.  102-105.  For  Thomson,  besides  the  references  given 
above,  see  the  Life  by  G.  C.  Macaulay  in  English  Men  of  Letters.  Texts  of  many 
of  the  poems  named  are  in*  Eighteenth  Century  Verse',  edited  by  Lynn  (Mac- 
millan).     See  also  Beers,  English  Romanticism. 


198 
PROSE    IX    THE    AGE    OF    JOHNSON 

I.     Samuel  Johnson  (1709-1784) 

1.  Poetry 

(a)  London  (1738) ;  Vanihj  of  Human  Wishes  (1749).  These 
belong  to  the  ethical  school;  in  heroic  couplet;  notable  for 
moral  elevation,  being  more  weighty  than  Pope's  satires; 
based  on  Juvenal. 

(b)  Irene  (1749);  a  tragedy;  follows  the  "rules." 

2.  The  Dictionary:  plan  published  1747;  work  completed  and 
published,  with  the  famous  letter  to  Chesterfield,  1755. 

3.  Periodicals 

(a)   The  Rambler  (1750-1752). 

(6)   The  Idler  (1759-1760).     These  combine  criticism  with 

"characters"  and  slight  narrative. 

4.  Rasselas  (1759);  a  romance  marked  by  slightness  of  story, 
pessimism,  moral  disquisition. 

5.  Lives  of  the  Poets  (1779-1781) 

(a)  The  essays  on  Cowley,  Milton,  and  Pope  are  most  im- 
portant for  their  critical  dicta.  Johnson  inclines  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  "rules";  stresses  the  moral  aim  of  poetry; 
to  him  poetry  is  "the  art  of  uniting  pleasure  with  truth  by 
calling  imagination  to  the  help  of  reason";  finds  test  of  a 
poem  in  its  popularity;  condemns  extravagance  in  thought 
and  language. 

(6)  Other  material  on  Johnson's  theories  of  criticism  in  the 
prologues  written  for  Garrick,  notably  the  one  on  the  opening 
of  Drury  Lane,  and  in  the  Rambler.  The  famous  sunnnary 
of  pseudo-classic  theory  of  style  is  in  Rasselas,  chapter  x: 
"The  business  of  the  poet  is  to  examine,  not  the  individual 
but  the  species;  to  remark  general  properties  and  large 
appearances.  He  does  not  number  the  streaks  of  the  tulip, 
or  describe  the  difi'crent  shades  in  the  verdure  of  the  forest." 

6.  The  chief  influence  of  Johnson,  however,  has  been  felt  rather 
through  his  conversation,  as  reported  by  Boswell,  and  his  noble 
personal  characler,  than  through  his  writings. 


200 

n.     Johnson's  Circle 

1.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds    (1723-1792);   famous   portrait   painter; 
author  of  Discourses  on  painting  and  criticism. 

2.  Edmund  Burke  (1729-1797) 

(a)  Our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  1756;  criticism 
of  poetry  and  painting;  influenced  Lessing's  Laokoon. 

(b)  Political  writings:  Thoughts  on  the  Present  Discontents 
(1770);  American  Taxation  (1774);  Conciliation  with  the 
American  Colonies  (1775);  Revolution  in  France  (1790); 
Regicide  Peace  (1796). 

3.  Edward  Gibbon  (1737-1794) 

(a)   History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  Rome  (1776-1788). 
(6)  Memoirs  (published  1796). 

4.  James  Boswell  (1740-1795) 

(a)  Journal  of  a  Tour  of  the  Hebrides  (1785). 

(b)  Life  of  Dr.  Johnson  (1791);  greatest  English  biography. 

5.  David  Garrick  (1717-1779) 

(a)  Famous  for  the  revolution  in  style  of  acting  introduced 
by    him:    passionate    representation    of  Hamlet,   Macbeth, 
Richard  III,  etc.,  in  place  of  cold  and  stilted  manner  of  the 
•    time. 

(6)  Manager  of  Drury  Lane;  his  company  including  Mrs. 
Gibber  and  Peg  Woffington. 

(c)  Author  of  comedies,  prologues,  etc. 

6.  Oliver  Goldsmith  (1728-1774) 

(a)  Poetry:  "^he ,  Traveller  (1757;  published  1764);  didactic 

and    descriptive    poem    in    heroic    couplets.      The    Deserted 

Village,  (1770)  marks  triumph  in  his  use   of   the   couplet; 

melody,  grace,  pathos  and  humor. 

(6)  Fiction:   The   Vicar  oj  Wakefield  (1766).     (See  Outhne 

on  the  Novel.) 

(c)  Dramatic  Work:    The  Good   Natur'd  Man   (1768);  ^he^ 

Stoops    to    Conquer    (1773).     (See    Outline    on    Eighteenth 

Century  Drama.) 

((/)  Criticism:  After  1757  wrote  many  reviews  and  essays; 

Enquiry  into  the   Present  State  of  Polite   Learning   (1759); 

satire  in  Citizen  of  the  World  (1762).     His  criticism  vacillates 

between  pseudo-classic  type  and  hints  of  the  approaching 

romantic  revival. 


202 

III.     The  Novel 

I.  Samuel  Richardson  (1689-1761) 

(a)  Pamela  (1740);  the  first  modern  novel;  a  series  of  letters 
exchanged  between  Pamela,  a  virtuous  servant  girl,  and  her 
parents;  her  ''virtue  rewarded"  by  marriage  with  her  em- 
ployer, ''Mr.  B." 

(6)  Clarissa  Harlowe  (1748);  similar  in  theme  and  method 
though  dealing  with  people  of  higher  station;  far"^ better  plot 
construction,  leading  to  tragedy. 

(c)  Sir  Charles  Grandison  (1753);  designed  to  present  the 
perfect  hero,  in  order  to  atone  for  the  attractiveness  of  his 
villain  Lovelace  {Clarissa  Harlowe)  and  to  counteract  the 
"Evil  Tendency"  of  Fielding's  Tom  Jones;  dramatis  personm 
include  "Men,  Women,  and  Itahans";  a  morality  in  the 
garb  of  prose  fiction. 

Xd)  Richardson's  favorite  method  to  tell  the  story  by  means 

/of  letters;  amount  of  incident  small;  chief  importance  lies 

I  -in  study  of  character,  yet  these  characters  are  comparatively 

\  simple   representations   of   vices   and   virtues;   sentimental 

moralizing. 


204 

2.  Henry  Fielding  (1707-1754) 

(a)  Wrote  several  comedies  and  farces  1730-1737. 

(b)  Joseph  Andrews  (1742);  begun  as  a  parody  on  Pamela, 
but  develops  into  a  comic  epic,  influenced  by  Cervantes 
and  the  picaresque  romances. 

(c)  Jonathan  Wild  (1743);  written  to  illustrate  the  thesis 
that  greatness  does  not  necessarily  involve  goodness;  elabo- 
rate irony. 

{d)  Tom  Jones  (1749);  perfect  example  of  the  comic  epic 
in  prose;  story  told  directly,  not  through  letters;  ridicules 
sentimental  morality  of  Richardson;  notable  for  plot  con- 
struction, realism,  vividness  of  characterization, 
(e)  Amelia  (1751);  Griselda-like  story  of  heroine  married 
to  weak  but  devoted  man  (Captain  Booth);  plot  compli- 
cated by  long  episodic  "stories"  of  the  characters  as  they 
are  introduced. 

(/)  Fielding  superior  to  Richardson  in  directness  with  which 
story  is  told;  in  presenting  complex  characters;  in  realism. 
His  theory  of  a  novel  a  combination  of  "history"  and  "comic 
epic." 


206 

3.  Laurence  Sterne  (1713-1768) 

(a)  Tristram  Shandy  (1759-1767)  lacks  ^liit  and  incident, 
unit^  and  coherence;  a  medley  of  out-of-the-way  learning 
from  Burton's  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  Rabelais,  etc.  Not- 
able for  wild  eccentricities  of  style,  combined  with  passages 
flawless  in  execution;  for  humor  and  pathos,  and  for  skill 
in  characterization.  >  .^ . 

(b)  A  SentimentalJ  our  ney  (17  QS).    .' .Om:>\^^^^^  ^'' 

4.  Tobias  Smollett  (1721-1771) 

(a)  Picaresque  stories:  Roderick  Random  (1748);  Feregrine 
Pjskle  (1751);  Ferdinand  Count  Fathom  (1753).  These 
stories  marked  by  coarseness  and  brutality;  by  realism; 
satire  in  the  manner  of  Swift.  Roderick  Random  introduces 
the  story  of  the  sea. 

(b)  Later  novels:  Sir  Launcelot  Greaves  tl762);  Humj^hrey 
Clinker  (1771).  The  last  is  a  story  told  in  letters,  but  with 
greater  variety  than  possible  to  Richardson,  and  introducing 
a  number  of  cleverly  drawn  portraits. 

5.  Other  fiction 

(a)  The  Castle  of  Otranto  (1764),  by  Horace  Walpole^  in- 
troduces Gothic  Romance  later  developed  by  Mrs.  Radcliffe 
and  others,  and  contributing  both  to  the  new  Romanticism 
and  to  the  historical  tales  of  Scott. 

(6)  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  (1766),  by  Goldsmith;  conven- 
tional incidents  and  character  types;  excellence  due  to  por- 
traiture and  style  rather  than  to  plot  construction;  notable 
for  purity  and  optimism. 

(c)  The  Man  of  Feeling  (1771),  by  Henry  Mackenzie;  senti- 
mental romance  influenced  by  Sterne  and  by  sentimental 
comedy  warred  on  by  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan. 

<^  (d)   Evelina  (1778)  and  Cecilia  (1782);  comrdies  of  manners 

by  Frances  Burney;  important  for  influence  on  later  work 
of  Maria  Edgeworth  and  Jane  Austen. 


»  208 

IV.     Other  Prose 

1.  Letters 

(a)  Philip  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Chesterfield:  Letters  (1774). 

2.  History  and  Political  Science 

(a)  David  Hume,    History  of  Great  Britain  (1754-1762). 
(6)  Adam  Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations  (1776). 

(c)  Sir  William  Blackstone,   Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
England  (1765-1769). 

(d)  Letters  of  Junius  (1769-1772). 

3.  Description  of  Nature 

(a)  Gilbert  White,  Natural  History  of  Selborne  (1789). 

References:  On  the  entire  period,  see  Gosse,  Eighteenth  Century  Literature^ 
and  Seccombe,  The  Age  of  Johnson.  Selections  from  the  writings  of  the  authors 
named  in  this  section,  with  bibliographies,  are  to  be  found  in  Alden's  Readings 
in  English  Prose  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Houghton).  For  Johnson,  see  also 
Stephen's  Life  in  English  Men  of  Letters;  Macaulay's  Essay;  Courthope  V. 
201-209;  and  the  Chief  Lives  of  the  Poets,  with  introduction  and  the  essays  by 
Macaulay,  Carlyle,  and  Arnold  (Holt).  For  Goldsmith,  see  the  biographies 
by  Black  and  Dobson;  the  Essay  by  Macaulay;  Thackeray,  in  English  Humour- 
ists; a  convenient  edition  of  the  plays  is  in  the  Belles  Lettres  Series  (Heath). 
For  the  Novel,  see  Cross,  Development  of  the  English  Novel;  Raleigh,  The  English 
Novel;  Thackeray's  English  Humourists;  Dobson's  Fielding  and  Richardson 
in  the  English  Men  of  Letters,  and  The  Life  and  Times  of  Sterne,  by  W.  L.  Cross. 
Novels  by  Fielding  are  reprinted  in  Everyman's  Library;  a  convenient  edition  of 
Tristram  Shandy  is  in  the  Temple  Classics.  • 


210 

THE   DRAMA   IN   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

I.     Shakspere 

1.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  century,  Shakspere  was  attacked 
for  his  violation  of  the  unities;  for  intermingUng  comedy  and 
tragedy;  for  "lowness"  (such  as  the  porter  scene  in  Macbeth, 
the  "mouse  stirring"  and  the  gravediggers'  scene  in  Hamlet, 
and  the  mob  in  Julius  Caesar) ;  and  for  violation  of  poetic  justice, 
as  in  Lear.  The  influence  of  the  French  drama  and,  after  1730, 
of  Voltaire,  contributed  to  these  opinions. 

2.  Alterations  of  most  of  the  great  plays  were  made  for  the 
stage;  the  plays  were  presented  in  costumes  and  manners  of 
the  century,  and  were  declaimed  in  the  stilted  manner  of  the 
French  theatre. 

3.  More  natural  mode  of  acting  introduced  by  Charles  Macklin 
(Shylock)  and  David  Garrick  (Macbeth)  in  1741,  but  Garrick 
was  responsible  for  further  mutilations  of  the  texts;  Mrs.  Siddons' 
representation  of  Lady  Macbeth  (1784)  became  famous. 

II.     Sentimental  Comedy 

I.  Early  examples  in  Steele's  Tender  Husband,  Conscious  Lovers, 

and  other  plays,  1703-1721. 

J2.  Developed  as  special  type  after  the  middle  of  the  century, 
/  being  influenced  by  Rousseau  and  Richardson  and  by  the  French 

comedies  of  tears.  These  plays  based  on  hatred  of  "lowness," 
,  and  are  sentimental  domestic  plays  without  realism,  wit,  or  even 
\  comic  situation. 

3.  Best  examples:  False  Delicacy  (1768),  by  Hugh  Kelly;   The 

West  Indian  (1771),  by  Richard  Cumberland. 

(4.  Attacked  by  Goldsmith  in  his  prefaces  and  essays,  as  well 
as  in  his  plays;  burlesqued  by  Fielding  in  his  dramas  and  novels; 
and  by  Sheridan. 


212  ■ 

III.  Comedy  of  Manners 

1.  Oliver  Cloldsmith 

(a)  The  Good-natur'  d  Man  (1768)  and  She  Stoops  to  Conquer 
'  (1773). 

(b)  Aimed  at  delineation  of  character  and  restoration  of 
humorous  situation;  marked  by  wit  and  humor,  and  by 
moral  purity. 

2.  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan  (1751-1816) 

(a)  The  Rivals  (1775);  The  Duenna  (1775);  The  School  for 
Scandal {1777) ;  The  Critic  (1779).  In  these  plays  Sheridan 
warred  on  sentimentalism  in  the  drama  and  novel;  but  in 
his  Pizarro  (1799),  a  free  translation  from  the  German  of 
Kotzebue,  he  produced  a  melodramatic  tragedy  which  be- 
came enormously  popular. 

(6)  Sheridan's  comedies  constructed  on  the  Elizabethan 
plan;  in  wit  and  dialogue  suggest  Congreve  without  his 
indecency;  excel  in  characterization  and  dramatic  situation. 

IV.  The  Decadence 

1.  After  Sheridan  little  of  value;  burletta,    opera,  melodrama, 
pantomime  almost  drove  the  legitimate  drama  from  the  stage. 

2.  Translations  of  Kotzebue's  plays,  with  imitations  by  Colman 
and  others. 

3.  Gothic  drama  such  as  Lewis's  Castle  Spectre. 

4.  Prevailing  type  melodramatic  and  stilted;  theatrical  without 
literary  value. 

References:  No  good  history  of  the  drama  for  this  period  exists.  Hints  are 
to  be  found  in  the  various  editions  of  Goldsmith's  and  Sheridan's  plays,  espe- 
cially Nettleton's  Major  Dramas  of  Sheridan  (Ginn)  and  Dobson's  Goldsmith 
(Heath,  Belles  Lettres  Series.)  See  also  Lounsbury's  Shakespeare  as,  a  Dramatic 
Artist  and  Shakespeare  Wars;  Thorndike's  Tragedy  (Houghton). 


214 

THE     REACTION    TOWARDS     ROMANTICISM 

I.     Interest  in  medieval  and  earlier  English  literature 

1.  The  period  from  1750  to  1780  marked 

(a)  By  sincere  appreciation  of  Milton  and  Spenser,  con- 
trasted with  earlier  condescension  and  burlesque. 

(b)  By  imaginative  sympathy  with  medieval  life  and  lit- 
erature, shown  in  poetry,  fiction,  criticism,  and  scholarly 
research. 

2.  WiUiam  Collins  (1721-1759) 

(a)  At  Oxford  wrote  Persian  Eclogues  (1743)  and  projected 

a  history  of  Humanism;  later  odes  on  various  subjects  1746, 

1749. 

-(6)  Best  poems  and  odes:  To  Liberty;  To  Evening;  The 
(  Passions;  On  the  Death  of  Thomson;  Dirge  in  Cymbeline; 
\0n  the  Popular  Superstitions  of  the  Highlands. 

(c)  Some  of  these  poems  are  in  the  conventional  style,  but 
•    as  a  whole  they  are  marked  by  imagination,  feehng,  freedom 

in  versification,  sympathy  with  earlier  Enghsh  poets  and 
with  popular  legend. 

3.  Thomas  Gray  (1716-1771) 

(a)  Odes  to  Spring,  Adversity,  Eton  College  (1742);  Elegy 
in  a  Country  Churchyard  (1751) ;  collected  edition  of  his  poems 
(1753);  Progress  of  Poetry,  and  The  Bard  (1757);  poems 
from  the  Norse  and  Welsh  (Fatal  Sisters,  Descent  of  Odin. 
Triumphs  of  Owen,  Death  of  Hoel,  etc.,  published  1768) 
His  Letters  are  also  important  for  their  literary  criticism, 
their  interest  in  nature,  and  the  revelation  of  his  personahty. 
(5)  Notable  for  the  progress  shown  in  his  poetry  from  Augus- 

,  tan  conventionality  to  romantic  interest  in  the  medieval. 

'The  Pindaric  Odes  are  more  accurate  in  form  than  the  so- 
called  Pindarics  of  Cowley. 

(c)  Both  Collins  and  Gray  criticized  by  Johnson  and  others 
for  archaisms, "elaborate  imagery,  lack  of  "smoothness," 
etc.  Both  are  distinguished  for  srnallness  of  product  and 
exquisite  sense  of  form. 


216 

The  Ballads 

(a)  Allan  Ramsay  (1686-1758)  by  his  collections  of  songs 
and  ballads  {Tea  Table  Miscellany  and  The  Evergreen)  led 
the  way  for  a  number  of  Scottish  poets  culminating  in  Burns; 
while  his  Gentle  Shepherd,  a  pastoral  drama  (1725)  shows 
interest  in  simple  life  and  nature. 

(6)  James  Macpherson  in  1760  published  what  purported 
to  be  translations  of  the  Gaelic  poems  of  Ossian. 
(c)  Thomas  Percy,  Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry  (1765), 
a  collection  of  popular  ballads  that  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Romanticism. 

((/)  Thomas  Chatterton,  The  Rowley  Poems  (1764ff);  pre- 
tended copies  of  poems  said  to  have  been  found  at  Bristol; 
imitated  language  of.  Chaucer  but  without  §Xact  knowledge. 
(e)  James  Beattie,  in  Tlie  Minstrel  (1771-1774),  shows  in- 
terest in  ballads  and  in  nature,  influence  of  Gray  and  Gold- 
smith, and  uses  Spenserian  stanza. 

Gothic  Romance 

(a)  Smollett,  in  Ferdinand  Count  Fathom,  introduced  some 
Gothic  elements  of  mystery  and  horror. 

(b)  Horace  Walpole,  The  Castle  of  Otranto  (1764);  scene  in 
medieval  Italy;  Gothic  tragedy  with  walking  portraits, 
giant  in  armor,  etc. 

(c)  Clara  Reeve,  The  Old  English  Baron  (1777);  contem- 
porary life  in  medieval  setting. 

(d)  William  Beckford,  Vathek  (1786);  an  eastern  tale. 

(e)  Anne  Radcliffe,  five  Gothic  romances  written  1789- 
1797,  chief  among  them  being  The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho  and 
The  Italian:  ruined  castles,  mysterious  doors,  supernatural- 
ism,  conventional  types,  the  interest  being  mainly  in  thrill- 
ing incident. 

(/)  "Monk"  Lewis,   The  Monk  (1795). 
/{g)  These  romances  melodramatic  rather  than  Elizabethan; 
\   extravagant  in  imagination;  supernatural  and  horrible  in 
incident;  lead  to  historical  romance. 


>    ( 


218 

6.  Criticism  and  Scholarship 

(a)  Y^ung,  in  Conjectures  on  Original  Composition  (1759), 
inchnes  to  romantic  individualism  and  criticism  of  Pope. 
(6)  Reactionary  elements  mingled  with  convention  in  critical 
pieces  by  Goldsmith. 

(c)  Bishop  Hurd,  in  his  Letters  on  Chivalry  and  Romance 
(17()_'  criiicizos  Pope's  injunction  to  follow  nature;  shows 
romantic  appreciation  of  Spenser;  holds  that  each  author 
is  to  be  judged  in  accordance  with  his  genius  and  that  of  his 
time,  not  by  '"rules"  or  ''kinds." 

{d)  Joseph  Warton  (1722-1800)  wrote  The  Enthusiast  (about 
1740),  in  which  he  praised  the  Elizabethans;  edited  Virgil 
(1753),  with  essays  on  poetry;  wrote  an  essay  on  Pope 
(1757),  and  edited  Pope's  works  (1797). 
(e)  Thomas  Warton  (1728-1790)  wrote  some  poems  romantic 
in  tendency;  Observations  on  the  Faery  Queen  of  Spenser 
(1754);  History  of  English  Poetry  (1774-1781).  He  vacil- 
lates between  romantic  enthusiasm  and  pseudo-classic 
theory;  significant  as  scholar  and  critic. 
(J)  Elements  in  the  critical  reaction:  no  definite  creed,  but 
distinctly  romantic  in  preference  for  historical  point  of 
view  and  in  imaginative  sympathy. 


220 

II.     The  development  of  the  poetry  of  nature,  1 780-1 790. 

1.  William  Cowper  (1731-1800) 

(a)  Olncy  Hymns  (with  Newton,  1779);  Table  Talk  (1782); 
The  Task  (1785);  Translation  of  Horner  (1791);  Letters 
(published  1824). 

(6)  Calvinisni*:  sincere,  gloomy,  passionate.  As  a  writer  of 
religious  verse  is  to  be  compared  with  Herbert,  and  with 
the  eighteenth  century  hymnologists  (Isaac  Watts;  Charles 
and  John  Wesley). 

(c)  Poetry   of  Nature:  direct  observation;  sympathy;  the 
delations  between  man  and  nature. 

(d)  Humor;  witty  character  sketches;  satire;  epigram. 

(e)  A  writer  of  some  notable  ballads  {Boadicea;  Toll  for 
the  Brave;  The  Castaway;  John  Gilpin). 

(J)  Uses. couplets  and  blank  verse;  his  poetic  diction  shows 
reaction  against  pseudo-classic  forms  and  leads  to  Words- 
worth. 

(g)  In  his  translation  of  Homer  seeks  Uteralness  and  rejects 
the  theories  of  Dryden  and  Pope. 

2.  George  Crabbe  (1754-1832) 

(a)  Chief  significance  in  this  period  in  his  The  Village 
(1783);  after  long  silence,  wrote  (1807-1819)  several  collec- 
tions of  poems  narrative  and  descriptive  {The  Parish  Regis- 
ter; The  Borough;  Tales  in  Verse;  Tales  of  the  Hall). 

(b)  Like  Cowper,  is  interested  in  both  man  and  nature, 
excelling  both  in  characterization  and  in  accurate  descrip- 
tion. His  method  realistic;  he  studies  the  lives  of  the  poor 
but  without  the  passionate  sympathy  of  Burns;  insists  on 
the  unpleasant  aspects;  does  not  seek  to  interpret  or  to 
reform. 


222 

3.  Robert  Burns  (1759-1796) 

(a)  Poerns,  published  1786;  second  edition,  with  many  ad- 
ditions, 1787;  another  edition,  adding  Tarn  O'Shanter  and 
other  poems,  1793. 

(6)  The  return  of  the  lyric.     After  Herrick  and  his  con- 
»  temporaries,  very  few  good  lyrics  in  English  poetry  until 

Burns,    following    Ramsay,    Fergusson   and    other    Scottish 
^  -  poets,  pubhshed  his  poem's.     The  excellence  of  his  love  songs, 

(c)  Man:  Burns  the  best  representative  of  the  tendency  of 
the  time  to  find  subjects  for  poetry  in  humble  life.  But 
he  differs  in  important  respects  from  Goldsmith,  Cowper, 
Crabbe.  In  connection  with  this  topic  note  also  the  in- 
fluence of  Rousseau;  the  prison  reform  movement;  Wes- 
leyanism;  the  movement  toward  democracy  in  France  and 
America. 

{d)  Nature:  Sympathy  with  the  humble  aspects  of  nature, 
^,^  common  flowers  and  animals;  illustrates  the  "deepening  of 

imaginative  sensibility"  characteristic  of  Romanticism, 
(e)  Other  elements  in  his  poetry:  humor;  hatred  of  religious 
cant;  variety  of  metrical  forms. 

4.  Wilham  Blake  (1757-1827) 

(a)  Poems:  Poetical  Sketches  (1783);  Songs  of  Innocence 
(1789);  Songs  of  Experience  (1794).  Prophetic  Books:  The 
Book  of  Thel  (1789);  The  Marriage  of  Heaven  and  Hell 
(1790);  Jerusalem,  and  Milton  (1804). 

(h)  Shows  the  influence  of  the  Elizabethans  and  of  the 
ballad  revival. 

(c)  Love  of  animals  and  of  childhood.  His  poems  on  these 
subjects  marked  by  felicity  of  expression  and  lyrical  form, 
by  simplicity  without  condescension;  they  may  be  compared 
with  similar  themes  treated  by  Burns  and  Wordsworth. 

(d)  In  mysticism  and  love  of  the  marvelous  anticipates 
important  phases  of  poetry  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

(e)  Besides  his  literary  work,  Blake  was  famous  as  an  artist 
and  engraver.  His  designs  for  The  Grave  (Blair),  for  Chau- 
cer's Canterbury  pilgrims,  for  the  book  of  Job,  and  for  Dante, 
are  noteworthy. 


^' 


224 

Studies : 

1.  Note  the  progress  from  pseudo-classic  diction  and  forms  in  the  work 
of  Gray  by  comparing  one  of  the  earlier  Odes  with  The  Fatal  Sisters. 

2.  Study  The  Progress  of  Poesy  and  The  Bard:  as  to  fusion  of  conventional 
and  romantic  elements;  as  to  form;  in  comparison  with  the  odes  of 
Cowley. 

3.  Can  you  distinguish  any  differences  between  the  poetry  of  Collins 
and  that  of  Gray? 

4.  Find  in  your  text  illustrations  of  the  characteristics  of  Cowper's 
poetry  named  in  the  Outline.     Of  the  poetry  of  Crabbe.     Of  Burns. 

5.  Compare  the  archaisms  of  Chatterton  with  those  of  Spenser  and  with 
the  language  of  Chaucer. 

6.  The  relations  of  Burns  to  his  Scottish  predecessors. 

7.  The  treatment  of  Nature  in  the  poetry  of  Cowper,  Crabbe,  Burns. 

8.  Studies  in  the  blank  verse  represented  by  this  group  of  poets. 

9.  Burns  and  Herrick. 

Reference:  On  the  period  prior  to  1780,  Gosse,  Eighteenth  Century  Literature 
and  Courthope,  volume  V.  On  the  entire  period,  Beers,  English  Romanticism 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Short  discussions  of  Gothic  Romance  are  found 
in  the  histories  of  the  novel  by  Cross  and  Raleigh;  Dunlop,  History  of  Fiction, 
II.  577-587,  may  be  consulted  for  abstracts  of  the  plots  of  the  chief  exemplars 
of  the  type.  For  Gray,  see  the  selections  in  the  Athenaeum  Press  Series,  with 
the  introduction;  Gosse,  in  English  Men  of  Letters;  and  the  essays  by  Lowell 
and  Arnold;  for  a  hostile  contemporary  view,  Johnson's  Life  is  notorious.  For 
Buras,  see  Athenaeum  Press  edition;  Shairp's  Life;  and  the  essays  by  Carlyle, 
Hazlitt,  Stevenson. 


22G 

THE    ROMANTIC    TRIUMPH 

I.      Some  definitions  of  Romanticism 

1.  "The  revival  of  the  Medieval." 

2.  "The  Renascence  of  Wonder." 

3.  "The  deepening  of  imaginative  sensibility.' 

4.  "The  essential  classical  element  is  that  quality  of  order  in 
beauty  .  .  .  It  is  the  addition  of  strangeness  to  beauty  that 
constitutes  the  romantic  character  in  art." 

II.     William  Wordsworth  (1770-1850) 

1.  After  leaving  Cambridge  (B.A.,  St.  John's  College,  1791), 
travelled  in  France;  wrote  Descriptive  Sketches  (1793);  Guilt  and 
Sorrow  (1793-1795);  The  Borderers  (a  tragedy,  1795-1796). 
These  works  show  interest  in  nature  and  humble  life,  as  well  as 
effect  of  tragic  events  in  France. 

2.  Acquaintance  with  Coleridge,  1796;  result  in  Lyrical  Ballads 
(1798),  which  contained,  besides  other  pieces  by  the  two  friends, 
The  Ancient  Mariner.  Aim  of  the  poets  to  give  poetic  charm  to 
events  and  scenes  of  common  life,  and  to  make  the  supernatural 
seem  real;  the  "Advertisement"  also  declares  war  on  co^iventional 
poetic  diction. 

3.  After  travels  in  Germany  (1798-1799)  settled  in  the  Lake 
country;  given  office  in  customs,  1813;  poet-laureate,  1843. 

4.  Main  groups  of  his  poems 

(a)  Nature  poems,  such  as  Tintern  Abbey,  Expostulation 
and  Reply,  The  Tables  Turned,  The  World  is  too  much  with 
us.  Daffodils,  Peele  Castle,  and  the  longer  works  The  Excur- 
sion (1814),  The  Prelude  (published  1850),  and  The  Recluse 
(published  1888)." 
(6)  Childhood,  such  as  Lucy  Gray,  We  are  Seven,  etc. 

(c)  Pastorals,    such    as    The   Old    Cumberland    Beggar    and 
Michael. 

(d)  Medieval  themes:  Hartleap  Well;  The  White  Doe. 

(e)  Odes:  Duty,  On  the  Intimations  of  Immortality,  etc. 
(/)  Classical  themes:  Laodamia;  Dion,  etc. 

ig)  Sonnets:   in   this   field   he   is   coniparal)le   with    Milton. 
Note  that  the  sonnet  was  almost  unknown  in  England  from_ 
Milton  to  Wordsworth. 


228 

5.  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetry:  simple  themes;  language  the 
same  as  that  of  ordinary  life;  rebels  against  the  theory  of  poetic 
diction  held  by  Pope  and  his  school.  Literary  criticism  contained 
mainly  in  the  Prefaces  to  the  second  edition  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads 
(1800);  to  The  Excursion  (1814),  and  to  the  collected  edition  of 
his  Poems  (1815). 

6.  Wordsworth's  theory  of  Nature:  transcendental;  is  both  real- 
istic and  interpretative;  values  meditation  and  a  "wise  passive- 
ness." 

7.  Note  the  wide  range  of  his  themes;  his  mastery  of  blank  verse, 
sonnet,  ode;  his  lyric  power;  his  appeal  to  thought;  his  complete 
break  with  the  pseudo-classic  tradition. 


230 

in.     Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  (1772-1834) 

1.  While  a  student  at  Christ's  Hospital  influenced  by  the  Sonnets 
of  Bowles  (1789).  After  some  experiments,  wrote  two  great 
odes:  To  the  Departing  Year  and  France  (1796,  1798),  and  a  group 
of  nature  poems:  Frosi  at  Midnight;  Fears  in  Solitude  (1798) 

2.  Greatest  poems:  The  Ancient  Mariner;  Kubla  Khan  (1797), 
and  Christabel,  (1797-1800)7  These  show  the  special  qualities 
of  his  supernaturalism,  his  marvelous  lyrical  power,  and  a  vivid- 
ness of  imagination  unknown  in  English  poetry  since  Milton. 

3.  Like  Wordsworth,  wrote  of  nature,  childhood,  simple  life. 
But  these  not  his  characteristic  themes,  and  at  the  last  {Ode  to 

'^Dejection,  1802)  he  expressed  dissent  from  his  friend's  theory  of 
Nature. 

4.  Dramatic  works:  Robespierre  (with  Southey,  1794);  Wallen- 
stein  (translated  from  Schiller,  1800);  Rejnorse  (acted,  1813); 
Zapolya  (1817). 

5.  Prose  works:  besides  contributions  to  several  periodicals, 
essays  on  political  philosophy,  on  religion  {Aids  to  Reflection 
1825),  etc.,  Coleridge  attained  high  rank  as  a  literary  critic.  His 
lectures  on  Shakspere,  (1808,  1812,  1818)  show  the  influence  of 
German  criticism;  Lessing,  Kant,  Schiller,  Schelling.  His  Bio- 
gr<ij)liia  Litcraria  (1817)  adds  the  criticism  of  Wordsworth's 
theoiy  of  poetry;  poetic  diction,  the  themes  proper  to  poetry; 
the  distinction  between  Fancy  and  Imagination. 


232 

IV.     Walter  Scott  (1771-1832) 

1.  Ancestry  from  heroes  of  border  warfare;  profoundly  influenced 
in  youth  by  Percy's  Reliques  and  by  study  of  legends.  After 
study  of  law  (admitted  to  the  bar,  1792)  and  of  German  romantic 
literature  (translations  from  Goethe  and  Biirger),  this  interest 
led  to  publication  of  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border  (1802). 

2.  From  ballads  passed  to  metrical  romance:  projected  an  edition 
of  Sir  Tristrem  (published,  1804) ;  then  wrote  first  original  narrative 
poem  on  border  chivalry.  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (1805), 
which  was  influenced  somewhat  by  Christabel  though  wholly 
different  in  attitude  toward  medievalism. 

3.  Later  metrical  romances:  Marmion  (1808),  a  somewhat  melo- 
dramatic account  of  defeat  at  Flodden;  Lady  of  the  Lake  (1810); 
The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick  (1811) ;  The  Bridal  of  Triermain  (1813), 
The  Lord  of  the  Isles  (1815).  Later  romances  show  flagging  in- 
vention, and  with  the  entrance  of  Byron  into  the  same  field 
Scott  turned  to  prose.  This  work  belongs  to  period  of  residence 
at  Ashestiel. 


234 

The  Novels 

(a)  These  written  during  residence  at  Abbotsford;  belong 
to  the  period  1814-1831;  and  begin  with  Waverley  (1814). 
Until  1827,  pubucation  was  anonymous. 

(b)  Aim  was  to  write  historical  drama  in  form  of  prose 
fiction;  the  twenty  nine  novels  fall  into  three  groups:  those 
dealing  with  Scotland  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries;  with  England  and  the  Middle  Ages  (beginning  with 
Ivanhoe,  1820);  and  with  continental  Europe  (beginning 
with  Quentin  Durward,  1823). 

(c)  Failure  of  his  publishers,  the  Ballantynes,  for  £117,000 
in  1826,  inspired  his  magnificent  courage  to  repay  the  debt 
by  his  pen,  but  the  last  novels  show  evidence  of  strain. 

Scott's  place  in  literature 

(a)  As  a  2£?t:  notable  for  skill  in  vivid  description;  for 
mastery  of  narrative  in  verse;  for  facility  in  use  of  the  four 
accent  couplet.  He  lacks,  however,  the  distinction  of  verse 
that  was  attained  by  his  great  contemporaries. 
(6)  As  a  novehst :  notable  for  the  same  qualities  of  descrip- 
tion and  narrative;  for  humor;  for  absence  of  mysticism; 
for  abundance  of  detail;  for  historical  magnificence  of  his 
crowded  scenes.  Limitations  in  lack  of  subtle  portraiture 
or  of  development  of  character,  and  in  the  frequently  me- 
chanical nature  of  his  plots. 

(c)  In  his  interest  in  the  medieval,  Scott  one  of  the  chief 
representatives  of  romanticism.  His  medievalism  not  mys- 
tical, like  that  of  Coleridge,  nor  sensuous  and  dreamy,  like 
that  of  Keats   but  aims  at  realism. 


236 

V.     Lord  Byron  (1788-1824) 

1.  While  a  student  at  Cambridge,  published  a  collection  of  short 
poems,  mainly  conventional  or  silly;  these  occasioned  Jeffrey's 
stinging  review  in  the  Edinburgh,  to  which  Byron  replied  in  Eng^ 
lish  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers  (1809).  This  a  literary  satire, 
in  couplets,  imitating  the  Dunciad  and  having  the  same  defects. 

2.  The  first  foreign  tour  (1809-1811)  resulted  in  the  poem  which 
made  him  famous:  Childe  Harold  (cantos  I  and  II,  1812).  Chief 
characteristics : 

(a)  The  use  of  the  Spenserian  stanza,  though  not  an  imi- 
tation of  the  Spenserian  manner.  Some  few  archaisms; 
general  idea  of  a  pilgrimage;  admirable  for  the  romantic 
description  of  nature. 

(b)  Enormous  popularity  due  to  interest  in  foreign  scenery 
and  life  (compare  the  oriental  romances)  and  its  revelation 
of  romantic  personality. 

3.  The  Metrical  Romances   (1813-1816) 

(a)  Best  examples:  The  Giaour;  The  Bride  of  Abydos]  The 
Corsair;  Lara;  Siege  of  Corinth. 

(6)  Popularity  due  to  melodramatic  action; passionate  aspects 
of  love;  personal  interest  in  the  adventures  of  a  romantic 
hero;  vigor  of  their  style.     Supplanted  Scott. 

4.  Left  England  permanently,  1816,  living  in  Italy  until  he 
organized  military  expedition  in  behalf  of  Greek  independence, 
1823.  Works  written  during  this  period  reflect  scorn  of  English 
religious,  political,  and  social  ideals,  and  satirize  Wordsworth, 
Southey,  and  other  men  of  letters. 


238 

5.  Works  written  in  exile. 

(a)  In  Switzerland,  summer  of  1816:  Childe  Harold,  canto 
III;  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon;  Stanzas  to  Augusta;  Manfred. 
The  last  similar  to  Faust  in  theme;  dramatic  in  form;  suggests 
Gothic  romance. 

(b)  In  Venice:  Lament  for  Tasso  (1817);  Childe  Harold 
canto  IV.  (1817). 

(c)  During  the  remainder  of  his  life,  Byron  wrote  mainly 
narrative  and  dramatic  works,  for  the  most  part  in  satirical 
or  serio-comic  vein:  Beppo  (1817);  Don  Juan  (1819;  1821- 
1823),  which  is  on  the  whole  the  most  representative  of 
his  genius;  and  The  Vision  of  Judgment  (1821),  which  mocks 
at  Southey.  These  illustrate  the  narratives,  while  il/qrino 
Faliero  {IS20) ;  Sardanapalus  (1821)  The  Tivo  Foscari  (18211, 
and  Cain  (1822)  are  the  chief  dramas. 

6.  Besides  his  poetry,  Byron  also  wrote  admirable  prose,  notably 
on  such  controversial  questions  as  the  dispute  with  Bowles  on 
the  merits  of  Pope. 


240 

VI.     Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (1792-1822) 

1.  Like  Byron,  Shelley  compelled  to  leave  England  because  of 
the  storm  aroused  by  his  domestic  life  and  religious  opinions; 
from  youth  interested  in  schemes  of  political  and  social  reform; 
associated  with  Godwin. 

2.  Works  written  in  England  (1813-1818) 

(a)  Queen    Mab    (1813),    shows   influence   of   Southey   and 
Landor  in  construction,  of  Godwin  in  thought. 
(6)   Alastor  (1816);  influenced  by  Wordsworth  in  verse  and 
in  theory  of  nature,   but   original  in   imaginative   quaUty. 

(c)  Swiss  tour,  1816,  brought  him  into  contact  with  Byron 
and  produced  i  Hymn  to  Intellectual  Beauty  and  Hymn  to 
Mont  Blanc ^ 

(d)  The  Revolt  of  Islam  (1817),  a  romance  of  revolution,  in 
Spenserian  stanza;  great  in  parts  but  indistinct  in  total 
effect. 

3.  Works  written  in  exile  (1818-1822) 

(a)  Dramas:  Prometheus  Unbound  (1819),  a  lyrical  drama 
which  applies  the  myth  to  the  story  of  the  struggle  for 
political  and  religious  liberty;  The  Cenci  (1819),  a  powerful 
tragedy,  owing  much  to  Macbeth. 

(b)  Lyrics:  Ode  to  the  West  Wind;  Ode  to  Liberty;  The  Sen- 
sitive Plant;  The  Cloud;  To  a  Skylark,  etc. 

(c)  Satires:  Peter  Bell,  etc. 

(d)  Adonais,  an  elegy  written  in  1821  on  the  death  of  Keats; 
Spenserian  stanza;  pastoral  in  part;  his  greatest  poem. 

4.  Shelley's  genius  essentially  lyrical;  ethereal  rather  than  sen- 
suous or  mystical;  unsuccessful  in  narrative. 


242 

VII.    John  Keats  (1795-1821) 

1.  Born  in  London;  studied  medicine;  went  to  Italy  on  account 
of  failing  health,  1820. 

2.  In  his  early  poems  uses  heroic  couplet  radically  different 
from  that  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  Sleep  and  Poetry  at- 
tacked Pope.  This  and  other  poems  contained  in  the  volume  of 
1817. 

3.  l^ndymion  (1818);  heroic  couplet;  poetic  romance,  but  the 
story  lost  in  sensuous  detail;  attacked  in  reviews. 

4.  Poems  dealing  with  the  medieval •.(_jE'ye  of  St.  Agnes;  Lamia; 
Isabella ;  La  Belle  DameT^,  All  except  last  published  in  the  volume 
of  1820. 

5.  Other  poems  of  1820 

(a)  Odes:  Grecian    Urn;   Nightingale;  Melancholy;  Autumn, 

etc. 

(6)    Hyperion;  Miltonic  in  verse  and  imaginative  quality. 

(c)  Sonnets. 

6.  Represents  late  phase  of  English  romanticism:  note  his  small 
interest  in  public  affairs;  the  peculiar  qualities  of  his  medieval- 
ism ;  his  kinship  with  Spenser  in  representing  the  spirit  of  romance 
and  the  worship  of  beauty;  his  development  of  ode  and  couplet 
and  his  mastery  of  the  sonnet.  In  important  respects  antici- 
pates neo-romanticism  of  Tennyson,  Rqssetti,  Swinburne.  Thus 
a  highly  important  transitional  poet. 


244 

Studies 

I.  Wordsworth: 

(a)  His  view  of  Nature.  Important  poems  are  Tintern  Ahhey, 
The  Tables  Turned,  Daffodils,  Peek  Castle,  Influence  of  Natural 
Objects,  and  the  lyrics  suggested  by  various  flowers.     Note  illus- 

.  trations  of  his  theory  that  poetry  "takes  its  origin  from  emotion 
recollected  in  tranquillity";  the  stress'  placed  on  meditation;  the 
manner  in  which  he  "interprets"  Nature.  What  differences  between 
the  flower  poems  and  those  by  Herrick  and  Burns?  Distinguish 
between  his  youthful  view  of  Nature  and  that  of  his  maturity. 
Difference  between  his  attitude  and  that  involved  in  Pope's  injunc- 
tion to  "follow  Nature." 

(b)  The  poetry  of  humble  life:  Poor  Susan,  Simon  Lee,  Cumberland 
Beggar,  Resolution  and  Independence,  Michael.  Compare  Burns 
and  Crabbe.  Note  the  inequality  of  style  and  theme;  which  is  the 
greatest  of  these  poems,  and  why?  How  does  the  group  illustrate 
Wordsworth's  theories  of  theme  and  diction? 

(c)  The  Sonnets:  themes;  style;  revelation  of  personality;. compari- 
son with  those  of  Milton. 

(d)  Study  the  development  of  the  thought  in  the  Ode  on  Immortality. 
Compare  it  with  the  didactic  poetry  of  the  school  of  Pope  and 
Thomson  and  with  the  Odes  of  Dryden  and  Gray. 

(e)  Study  other  poems  revealing  his  philosophy,  such  as  Laodamia, 
Duty,  The  Happy  Warrior,  and  summarize  results. 

2.  Coleridge: 

(a)  Compare  him  with  Wordsworth  in  view  of  Nature  and  of  Man; 

themes;  style;  qualities  of  imagination. 

(6)  Study  metre  and  rhyme  in  Christabel. 

(c)  Compare    his    medievalism    with    that    of    Scott.     How    does 

The  Ancient  Mariner  imitate  the  popular  ballads,  and  how  does 

it  differ?     Compare   Christabel   with   the  old   romances,   such   as 

Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight  or  Malory? 


246 

3-  Byron;  Shelley;  Keats: 

(a)  What  themes  drawn  from  Nature  does  Byron  prefer?  Has 
he  any  transcendentalism?  Subtlety?  Ccjmpare  his  use  of  simile 
and  metaphor  with  that  of  Coleridge  and  Shelley.  Compare  his 
methods  in  description  with  those  of  Scott.  Account  for  his  par- 
tiality for  Pope. 

(6)  Study  a  group  of  Shelley's  Nature  poems,  such  as  The  West 
Wind,  The  Sensitive  Plant,  Skylark,  Cloud,  Euganean  Hills,  and 
set  down  your  observations. 

(c)  What  are  the  leading  ideas  of  Shelley?  Are  they  clearly  ex- 
pressed? 

(d)  The  passion  for  beauty  as  exemplified  in  the  poetry  of  Shelley 
and  Keats. 

(e)  The  differences  between  the  medievalism  of  Keats  and  that  of 
Coleridge. 

(/)  Compare  Endymion  and  Hyperion  to  show  "how  Keats  advanced 

in  style,  imagination,  power  of  expression. 

(g)  The  influence  of  Spenser  on  Shelley  and  Keats. 
References:  The  best  Handbook  for  the  entire  period  is  Herford's  The  Age  of 
Wordsworth;  copious  selections  from  the  works  of  all  the  poets  treated  in  this 
section  are  to  be  found  in  Page's  British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Part  I. 
(Sanborn),  which  also  contains  admirably  selected  bibliographies.  The  main 
documents  showing  the  literary  theories  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Shelley 
are  printed,  in  separate  volumes,  by  the  Oxford  University  Press.  For  biogra- 
phies, consult  the  volumes  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series  {Wordsworth 
(Meyers) ;  Coleridge  )  Traill) ;  Scott  (Hutton) ;  Byron  (Nichol) ;  Shelley  (S jTnonds) ; 
Keats  (Colvin).  The  essays  by  Arnold  on  Wordsworth,  BjTon,  Keats;  by  Trent 
(The  Authority  of  Criticism)  on  Byron  and  Shelley;  by  More  on  Byron  (introduc- 
tion to  Cambridge  edition) ;  by  Symonds  on  Byron  (Ward's  English  Poets)  and 
such  general  histories  as  Brandes,  Main  Currents  in  Nineteenth  Century  Literature. 


248 

OTHER   VERSE   AND   PROSE    1798-1832 

I.     Poets 

I.  Robert  Southey  (1774-1843) 

(a)  His  inspiration  from  books,  not  life;  intimate  friend 
of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth;  war  between  him  and  Byron; 
poet  laureate,  1813. 

(6)  Important  contributions  to  the  rnetrical  romances  (com- 
pare the  work  of  Crabbe,  Landor,  Byron,  Scott) :  Joan  of 
Arc  (1796;  shows  influence  of  republican  ideas);  Thalaba 
(1801 ;  epic  of  Islam) ;  Madoc  (1805)  and  The  Curse  of  Kehama 
(1810)  (Arabian  and  Hindoo  tales);  Doji  Roderick  (1814),  an 
epic  dealing  with  Gothic  times. 

(c)  Southey  also  studied  Spanish  literature  and  legend, 
translating  several  romances,  and  is  noteworthy  for  some 
lyrics. 

(d)  A  writer  of  prose  of  distinction,  such  as  the  History  of 
Brazil  and  the  lives  of  Nelson,  Wesley,  etc. 

3.  Walter  Savage  Landor  (1775-1864) 

(a)  Distinguished  for  both  verse  and  prose;  "the  methods 
'of  sculpture  rather  than  poetry";  classical  in  reserve,  in 
finish  and  in  reproducing  the  spirit  of  Theocritus  and  of  the 
\Greek  Anthology. 

(6)  Poems:  Gehir  (1798),  prehistoric  Egyptian  tale,  filled 
with  myth  and  legend  akin  to  Greek  and  Roman  type,  dis- 
tinguished for  reserve  and  definiteness  of  outline;  Chrysaor 
(1802),  the  last  of  the  Titans;  many  poems  in  Latin,  some  of 
them  later  translated  into  English  in  the  Hellenics  (1847); 
many  occasional  poems  and  epigrams. 

(c)  Dramas:  Count  Julian  (1812),  based  on  old  Spanish 
legend,  story  somewhat  like  that  of  Coriolanus. 
{d)  Prose:  Imaginary  Conversations  (1824,  1828,  1829),  the 
work  on  which  his  fame  rests;  written  in  Italy;  marked  by 
dramatic  power;  subjects  drawn  from  all  nations  and  ages; 
history,  philosophy,  literary  criticism.  Other  prose  illus- 
trated by  his  Pericles  and  Aspasia  (1836)  and  Pentameron 
(1837). 


250 

Minor  Poets 

(a)  Xhpn^^s  Campbell  (1777-1844)  wrote  Pleasures  of  Hope 
(1799);  many  battle  lyrics,  such  as  Mariners  of  England, 
Hohenlinden,  Battle  of  the  Baltic;  and  a  romance  in  verse, 
Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  in  Spenserian  stanza  (1809). 
(6)  Ebenezer  Elliott  is  remembered  for  his  Corn-Law 
Rhymes  (1828). 

(c)  James  Hogg  wrote  and  collected  ballads  and  wrote 
prose^tates;  influenced  by  Scott;  called  "The  Ettrick  Shep- 
herd.'.' 

(d)  Thomas  Moore  (1779-1852)  wrote  Irish  Melodies  (1807 
and  after);  many  lyrics;  and  Lalla  Rookh  (Oriental  romance, 
1817). 

(e)  Samuel  Rogers  (1763-1855)  reflected  various  literary 
fashions;  intimate  with  the  several  groups  of  poets  of  the 
period.  Wrote  didactic  poem,  eighteenth  century  style, 
The  Pleasures  of  Memory  (1793);  essayed  the  metrical  tale 
{Jacqueline,  1814),  and  the  poetic  description  of  foreign 
travel  {Italy,  1822). 


252 

THE   NOVEL   IN   THE   TIME   OF   SCOTT 

I.     Before  Waverley 

1.  The  Sentimental  Novel 

(a)  The  Man  of  Feeling  (1771),  by  Henry  Mackenzie. 

(b)  Sentimentalism  combined  with  pedagogical  or  sociolog- 
ical elements:  A  Simple  Story  (1791),  by  Elizabeth  Inchbald; 
Anna  St.  Ives  (1792),  by  Thomas  Holcroft;  St.  Leon  (1799), 
and  Caleb  Williams  (1794),  by  William  Godwin. 

2.  Gothic  Romance 

(a)  Vathek,  an  Arabian  Tale  (1786),  by  William  Beckford. 
(6)  The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  (1794),  and  The  Italian  (1797), 
by  Anne  Radcliffe. 

(c)  The  Monk  (1795),  by  Matthew  Gregory  Lewis. 
{d)  Frankenstein  (1818),  by  Mary  Godwin  Shelley, 
(e)  Melmoth  the  Wanderer  (1820),  by  C.  R.  Maturin. 

3.  Jane  Austen  (1775-1817) 

(a)  Pride  and  Prejudice  (1797;  published  1813);  distin- 
guished for  excellence  of  plot,  but  the  characters  are  mainly 
humor  types  and  the  dialogue  is  often  awkward  and  mechan- 
ical. 

(6)  Sense  and  Sensibility  (1797;  pubhshed  1811);  marks 
triumph  of  her  method  of  witty  dialogue,  delicate  satire 
of  types,  realistic  pictures  drawn  from  limited  field  of  life; 
a  satire  of  ''sensibility." 

(c)  Northanger  Abbey  (1798;  published  1817);  a  satire  of 
Gothic  romance. 

(d)  Last  works:  Emma;  Mansfield  Park;  Persuasion  (1814- 
1818). 

4.  Other  writers  of  the  comedy  of  manners 

(a)  Besides  Miss  Austen,  writers  dealing  with  contemporary 
manners  were  Frances  Burney  (Evelina,  1778;  Cecilia,  1782) ; 
Maria  Edgeworth  {Belinda,  and  Castle  Rackrent,  1800- 
1801;    Fashionable    Tales,    1809-1812). 

5.  Historical  romance 

(a)  Of  many  examples  of  this  type  before  Scott,  the  most 
important  are  those  by  Jane  Porter  {Thaddeu^  of  Warsaw, 
1803;  Scottish  Chiefs,  1810). 


254 

n.     From  Waverley  to  Dickens 

1.  Roniauce 

(a)  Innumerable  historical  novels  appeared  as  a  result  of 
the  enormous  popularity  of  Scott.  G.  P.  R.  James  and 
W.  H.  Ainsworth,  who  wrote  between  1825  and  1850,  were 
among  the  more  prolific  of  these  imitators. 
(6)  Edward  Bulwer,  Lord  Lytton,  wrote  The  Last  Dayi 
of  Pompeii  (1834);  Rienzi  (1835);  The  Last  of  the  Barons^ 
(1843),  and  Harold  (1848). 

(c)  Later  historical  romances  are  those  by  Charles  Kings- 
ley  (Hypatia,  1853),  and  Thackeray. 

2.  The  Reaction  towards  Realism 

(a)  Mary  Mitford  shows  the  influence  of  Miss  Austen  in 
Our  Village  (1824-1832). 

(6)  Thomas  Love  Peacock  wrote  comedies  of  humors  which 
burlesqued  the  romances:  Nightmare  Abbey  (1818);  Crotchet 
Castle  (1831). 


256 

Studies 

I.  Outline  for  the  study  of  a  novel 

1.  Plot 

(a)  Is  it  a  novel  of  incident  or  of  characterization?  Is  it  related 
in  structure  to  the  drama  or  to  the  epic? 

(b)  Make  a  list  of  the  main  incidents,  marking  those  noteworthy 
for  emotional  intensity  or  for  comic  situation.  From  this  list 
determine  more  fully  the  structure  of  the  plot,  method  of  develop- 
ment, etc. 

(c)  Are  there  any  improbable  or  unreasonable  incidents?  Do  all 
the  incidents  bear  directly  on  the  plot,  or  are  some  episodic?  Is 
there  a  sub-plot?     If  so,  is  it  closely  related  to  the  main  story? 

(d)  Is  the  story  as  a  whole  strongly  unified? 

2.  Characters 

(a)  Are  the  chief  persons  simple  character  types  or  are  they  complex? 
The  minor  persons?     Are  there  well  defined  groups  of  characters? 

(b)  What  methods  are  used  in  characterization?  Is  character 
revealed  mainly  'through  action,  or  dialogue,  or  description?  Is 
there  a  variety  of  types?  Is  the  author  more  successful  in  portray- 
ing some  types  than  others? 

(c)  Which  seems  to  you  to  dominate:  the  plot,  or  the  characters? 
Does  the  plot  seem  constructed  mainly  as  a  means  for  exhibiting 
certain  character-types,  or  are  the  characters  merely  lay-figures 
for  the  exposition  of  the  plot,  or  are  the  two  elements  combined 
harmoniously? 

(d)  What  is  the  author's  attitude  toward  his  characters? 

3.  Setting 

(a)  What  is  the  period  of  the  novel?  Is  realism  of  setting  at- 
tempted? What  means  are  employed  to  give  the  impression  of 
realism?  Is  the  setting  relatively  important  or  unimportant? 
(6)  Does  description  of  nature  receive  any  stress?  Is  it  related 
to  the  story  in  any  direct  way?  Is  it  mainly  ornamental,  or  does 
it  assist  in  making  the  incidents  vivid  or  convincing,  or  does  it  in- 
fluence characters?  Does  it  embody  any  interpretation  or 
philosophy? 


258 

4.  Style 

(a)  Is  the  writer  precise?  Is  his  vocabulary  large;  is  it  appropriately 
varied  in  narration  and  in  dialogue? 

(b)  What  is  the  proportion  of  dialogue  to  narration?  Does  the 
dialogue  characterize;  is  it  stiff,  or  natural?  Does  it  assist  in  expo- 
sition? 

(c)  What  special  qualities  (humor;  pathos;  satire;  moral  purpose, 
etc.)  does  the  book  illustrate? 

(d)  Are  any  peculiarities  of  style  (such  as  artificiality,  pedantry, 
awkwardness  in  expression,  "fine  writing,"  prejudice,  etc.)  allowed 
to  interfeie  with  the  straightforward  telling  of  the  story? 

5.  Author 

(a)  Is  the  book  written  mainly  to  entertain,  or  to  illustrate  a  thesis, 
or  to  present  a  phase  of  life?  Does  the  author  make  the  story  a 
means  for  presenting  his  philosophy  of  life,  or  does  he  tell  the 
story  without  comment?  Are  you  conscious  of  the  opinions  and 
interpretations  of  the  author  as  you  read? 

n.  Special  studies  in  the  novel  of  this  period 

1.  Scott:  Study  one  of  the  novels  in  accordance  with  the  outline  given 
above;  compare  Kenilucorth  or  Ivanhoe  with  Henry  V\  what  is  the 
relation  of  the  novels  of  Scott  to  his  poetry,  to  the  previous  history  of 
the  novel,  to  Romanticism? 

2.  Miss  Austen:  Study  Sense  and  Sensibility  or  Pride  and  Prejudice  in 
connection  with  the  outline;  justify  the  term  "comedy  of  manners"  as 
applied  to  her  work. 

3.  Castle  Rackrent  and  The  Absentee,  by  Miss  Edgeworth,  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  study  of  early  use  of  fiction  for  serious  purposes  of  reform  with- 
out direct  didacticism,  and  for  the  introduction  of  character  types  till 
then  unusual  in  English  fiction. 

4.  In  all  your  studies  based  on  the  outline,  here  and  in  the  later  period, 
remember  that  you  should  note  concrete  illustrations  of  your  points. 


260 

CRITICISM   AND   THE   ESSAY    1798-1832 

I.     Criticism  in  the  works  of  the  Romantic  poets 

1.  Romantic  criticism  introduced  by  \Yordsworth  and  Coleridge. 

2.  B^^n  attacked  the  reviewers  in  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers^;  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Bowles  about  the  merits 
of  Pope;  criticized  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey  in  his  poems. 

3.  Shelley  wrote  an  eloquent  Defence  of  Poetry  (1821),  and 
some  fragments  in  other  places;  in  Adonais  he  lashed  the  review- 
ers who  had  ridiculed  Keats. 

II.     The  Conservatives 

T.  Francis  Jeffrey  (1773-1850) 

(a)  His  work  published  in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  of  which 
he  was  editor  1803-1829. 

(b)  His  criticism  based  on  authority  and  the  "rules,"  and 
aimed  at  "common  sense" ;  yet  his  dogmatism  rather  a  matter 
of  "taste"  than  reason. 

(c)  His  war  mainly  on  the  mystical  and  supernatural  elements 
in  Romantic  poetry;  he  praised  simplicity  and  realism  of 
Crabbe,  admired  the  Elizabethans,  and  recognized  defects 
in  Pope  and  Addison. 

(d)  This  accounts  for  his  appreciation  of  that  phase  of 
Romanticism  represented  by  Scott's  tales  while  attacking 
Wordsworth's  transcendentalism  and  sentimental  view  of 
peasant  life. 

2.  Other  writei"s  for  the  Reviews 

(a)  Sydney  Smith  (1771-1845)'  Famous  wit;  like  Jeffrey 
in  adherence  to  gospel  of  common  sense;  connected  with  the 
Edinburgh. 

(b)  WilHam  Gifford  (1757-1826)  became  editor  of  the  Quar- 
terly, 1809;  lacked  cleverness  of  Jeffrey  and  Smith  and  more 
])rutal  in  attacks  on  Romantic  poets;  his  notorious  review 
of  Endymion  provoked  Shelley's  Adonais. 

(c)  John  G.  Lockhart  (1794-1854)  wrote  for  Blackiroods; 
famous  for  his  biographies  of  Burns  and  Scott;  severely 
criticized  Keats  and  Plunt. 


2G2 

III.     The  Progress  of  Romantic  Criticism 
I.  Charles  Lamb  (1775-1834) 

"XoTTntimate  friend  of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth,  and  among 
the  first  to  recognize  their  genius;  his  writings  the  by- 
products of  a  busy  life  as  clerk  in  the  government  service; 
exerted  great  influence  through  his  personality  and  conver- 
sation. 

(6)  After  some  experiments  (some  poems,  1796,  1797;  Rosa- 
mund Gray,  a  tale,  1798;  John  Woodvil,  a  drama  based  on 
Ehzabethan  models,  1801)  he  wrote,  with  his  sister,  Tales 
from  Shakespeare,  1807, 

(c)  Most  significant  criticism  based  on  his  study  of  the 
drama;  this  contained  mainly  in  Specimens  of  the  English 
Dramatic  Poets  (1808),  the  essay  on  the  tragedies  of  Shaks- 
pere,  and  such  papers  in  Elia  as  "The  Artificial  Comedy  of 
the  Last  Century"  and  "The  Sanity  of  True  Genius." 

(d)  Fame  rests  on  Essays  of  Elia  (1823)  and  Last  Essays 
of  Elia  (1833),  reprinted  from  the  London  Magazine.  These 
illustrate  his  mastery  of  the  familiar  essay,  more  intimate 
and  self -revealing  than  The  Spectator;  their  didacticism 
less  obtrusive.  Variety  of  themes:  personal,  humorous, 
fanciful,  with  some  serious  criticism  of  life  and  letters. 

(e)  Style:  rich  humor;  wit;  ease;  deUcate  fancy;  sensi- 
tiveness to  the  flavor  of  age.  His  criticism  marked  by 
penetration,  sympathy,  imaginative  qualit}-;  a  discoverer 
of  subtle  effects  in  Shakspere  and  of  the  poetic  value  of  the 
minor  Elizabethan  drama.  (The  student  should  find  con- 
crete illustrations  of  these  points  in  the  selections  assigned 
for  study.) 


264 

William  Hazlitt  (1778-1830) 

(a)  Youth  marked  by  incessant  study,  enthusiasm  for  revo- 
lutionary schemes;  made  various  attempts  to  write  and 
to  paint;  was  profoundly  influenced  by  Coleridge. 
(6)  First  important  work  The  Characters  of  Shakespeare's 
Plays  (1817);  this  followed  by  Lectures  on  the  English  Poets 
(1818);  Lectures  on  the  English  Comic  Writers  (1819); 
Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  of  the  Reign  of  Eliza- 
beth (1821).  In  The  Spirit  of  the  Age  (1825)  he  summed  up 
his  impressions  of  literature  and  criticism  in  his  own  time. 

(c)  Besides    criticism,    wrote    many    familiar    essays:    The" 
Round   Table  (1817);   Table   Talk  (1821-1822);   TheJPlairi^ 

■  Speaker  (1826). 

(d)  As  a  critic,  had  no  systematic  method,  depending  rather 
on  a  cultivated  and  catholic  taste;  decisive  and  dogmatic, 
but  imaginative;  sought  to  appreciate  the  point  of  view 
and  purposes  of  the  author;  sturdy  and  independent,  a  hater 
of  sham  and  affectation. 


266 

Thomas  De  Quincey  (1785-1859) 

(a)  T^Iember  of  the  Coleridge-Wordsworth  circle  in  youth;  in 
the  period  1803-1820  read  widely  and  formed  projects  for 
great  works;  story  of  his  youth  related  in  first  important 
work,  Confessions  of  an  English  Opium  Eater,  contributed 
to  London  Magazine  (collected  and  published,  1821).  Fre- 
quent contributor  to  this  and  other  periodicals,  where  most 
of  his  work  first  appeared.  Klosterheim,  a  romance,  1832. 
(6)  Papers  and  essays  illustrating  his  imaginative  and 
rhythmical  prose:  Suspiria  de  Profundis;  The  English 
Mail  Coach;  The  Revolt  of  the  Tartars.  His  "lecture" 
on  Murder  Considered  as  One  of  the  Fine  Arts  illustrates 
his  peculiar  "humor  of  the  horrible." 

(c)  Passages   and   essays   in   Hterary   criticism:    On   Style; 

(Pope  (which  contains  the  famous  passage  on  the  literature 
of  knowledge  and  the  Hterature  of  power) ;  On  the  Knocking 
Q,t  the  Gate  in  Macbeth. 

(d)  Style:  marked  by  digression;  minuteness  of  detail; 
suggestive  of  poetry  in  its  rhythm  and  imaginative  power. 
As  a  critic  he  is  subtle,  psychological,  penetrating,  depending 
on  these  qualities  for  his  value  rather  than  on  the  exquisite 
taste  of  Lamb  and  Hazlitt.  (The  student  should  find  illus- 
trations of  these  points  in  the  work  asssigned  for  study.) 


268 

4.  Leigh  Hunt  (1784-1859) 

(a)  One  of  the  founders  of   The  Examiner  (1808);  wrote 
Story  q[  Rimini,  a  verse-narrative  based  on  the  Francesca 
scene  in  the  Inferno,  while  in  prison  because  of  a  poUtical 
paper;  travelled  in  Italy;  intimate  with  the  Shelleys. 
(6)  Wrote  many  lyrics;  translated  from  the  Italian;  con- 
tributed many  essays  to  the  reviews. 
References:  The  best  brief  account  of  the  men  treated  in  this  section  is  contained 
in  Herford's  Age  of  Wordsworth;  Saintsbury's  History  of  Criticism  and  English 
Literary  Criticism  may  also  be  consulted.     The  critical  essays  of  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Shelley,  De  Quincey,  (in  separate  volumes)  are  published  by  the  Oxford 
University  Press;  the  best  edition  of  Jeffrey's  essays  is  that  by  Gates  (Ginn). 
Hazlitt  and  Lamb  are  represented  in  Everyman's  Library.     Lives  of  De  Quincey 
and  Lamb  in  English  Men  of  Letters, 


270 

POETRY    IN    THE   VICTORIAN    PERIOD   I. 

I.     Alfred  Tennyson  (1809-1892) 

1.  Period  of  preparation 

(a)  Poems  by  Two  Brothers  (1827);  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1828,  where  he  won  a  prize  for  his  poem  Timbuctoo 
(1829);  published  Poems,  Chiefly  Lyrical,  1830. 
(6)  Abroad  with  Hallam,  1832,  another  edition  of  his  Poems, 
with  revisions  and  additions,   1833. 

(c)  Most  important  works  of  this  first  period :  Ode  to  Memory, 
The  Poet,   The  Dying  Swan,   Lady  of  Shaloit,   The  Miller's 

V  Daughter,  Oenone,  Palace  of  Art,  Lotos  Eaters,  Fair  Women. 

(d)  Early  work  marked  by  over-ornamentation,  strong  tend- 
ency to  allegory,  variety  of  metrical  forms,  promise  of  power. 

2.  Second  period  (1833-1850) 

(a)  For  nine  years  silent;  engaged  in  revising  early  work 
and  writing  new  poems;  results  in  two  volumes  of  Poems, 
1842;  published  The  Princess,  1847.  His  fame  began  with 
the  publication  of  the  volumes  of  1842;  pension,  1845;  poet 
laureate,  succeeding  Wordsworth,  1850. 

(b)  Main  groups:  Pastoral  idyls,  somewhat  similar  to 
Wordsworth's  {The  Gardener's  Daughter,  Dora,  etc.);  themes 
drawn  from  the  classics  (Oenone,  Ulysses,  Lotos  Eaters, 
Tithonus);  studies  in  Arthurian  legend  {Lady  of  Shalott, 
Galahad,  Sir  Launcelot  and  Queen  Guinevere,  Morte  d' Arthur); 
other  medieval  themes  (Dream  of  Fair  Women,  which  owes 
something  to  Chaucer;  *S^.  Simeon  Stylites,  a  study  in  medie- 
val asceticism;  Godiva)  St.  Agnes'  Eve)]  and  allegory  (Palace 
of  Art,   The  Vision  of  Sin). 

3.  In  Memoriam  (1850) 

(a)  Written  at  various  times  after  Hallam's  death  (1833); 
a  collection  of  131  lyrical  poems  of  varying  lengths,  with 
prologue  and  epilogue;  stanza  singularly  effective  variant 
of  elegiac  form;  four  accent  quatrains,  rh^nning  abba. 

(b)  Poem  sliglitly  unified  through  references  to  seasons, 
holidays,  anniversaries,  and  by  development  of  thought  from 
deep  grief,  through  doubt,  to  resignation  and  peace. 


272 

4.  Idylls  of  the  King  (1859-1885) 

(a)Sourcesln  Malory  and  in  Lady  Charlotte  Guest's  trans- 
lation of  the  so-called  ]\Iabinogion.  Uses  the  term 
''idyl"  in  the  sense  of  "little  picture";  thus  he  presents  a 
series  of  episodes  only  loosely  connected  rather  than  a  true 
epic. 

(h)  In  present  form  the  Idylls  set  forth  a  history  of  Arthur's 
life  by  means  of  twelve  stories;  the  allegory  is  never  promi- 
nent, though  the  general  idea  of  the  war  of  Sense  on  Soul 
runs  through  the  whole.  But  Tennyson  began  without  def- 
inite plan. 

(c)  The  Idylls  do  not  reproduce  the  medieval  life  and  ideals : 
Tennyson  lacks  sympathy  with  the  quest  for  the  Grail ; 
stresses  the  defection  of  Guinevere:  distorts  the  Tristram 
story;  thus  he  ''translates"  medieval  romance. 
/{d)  Blank  verse  unsurpassed  for  variety,  richness  of  orna- 
ment, lyrical  power. 

5.  Later  Poems: 

(a)  Maud  (a  monodrama,  1855);  Enoch  Arden  (1864); 
Ballads  and  Other  Poems  (1880);  Tiresias  and  Other  Poems 
(1885);  Locksley  Hall  Sixty  Years  After  (1886);  Demeter 
(1889). 

6.  Dramas 

(a)  Queen  Mary  (1875);  Harold  (1877);  The  Cup  (1884); 
The  Falcon  (1884);  The  Promise  of  May  (1886);  The  Fores- 
ters {1S92). 

(b)  These  works  mainly  Elizabethan  in  type;  literary  in 
style. 


274 

Studies 

1.  Compare  Tennyson's  early  studies  in  Arthurian  romance  (The  Lady 
of  Shalott,  Sir  Galahad,  Sir  Launcelot  and  Queen  Guinevere)  with  his  use 
of  this  material  in  the  later  Idylls. 

2.  The  Palace  of  Art  and  The  Vision  of  Sin:  summarize  the  meaning  of 
each  poem;  differences  between  the  allegory  in  these  poems  and  the  alle- 
gory of  Spenser  and  Bunyan;  between  it  and  the  allegory  of  the  Idylls. 

3.  Summarize  the  thought  of  a  number  of  the  poems  in  In  Memoriam. 
What  evidences  of  relation  to  the  scientific  movement  of  the  time  (Evo- 
lution, with  the  effects  on  religious  faith).  Study  the  stanza  of  the  poem 
and  its  effects.  (Corson's  Primer  of  English  Verse,  pp.  70-77,  may  be 
consulted.) 

4.  Compare  the  Dream  of  Fair  IVomenvfhh  Chaucer's  Legend. 

5.  Compare  one  of  the  Idylls  with  its  sources  in  Malory.  How  does  the 
poet  make  use  of  romance  material  in  order  to  interpret  life  of  his  time? 
How  does  he  distort  the  story  of  the  Grail,  and  why?  (On  this  compare 
St.  Simeon  Stylites.)  Compare  Tennyson's  use  of  the  medieval  with  that 
of  earlier  poets  of  the  romantic  period,  especially  Scott,  Coleridge,  Keats. 

6.  Compare  Rizpah  with  one  of  Browning's  dramatic  monologues. 

7.  Some  of  Tennyson's  stanzas. 

8.  Tennyson's  methods  in  revision.  (On  this  the  introduction  to  Van 
Dyke's  edition  of  Selections  froni  Tennyson,  published  by  Ginn,  may  be 
c  onsu  Ited .) 

9.  Rlietorical  ornament  in  Tennyson. 

10.  Tennyson's  view  of  Nature. 

11.  Reflections  in  Tennyson's  poetry  of  the  political,  social,  and  scienti- 
fic movements  of  his  time. 

References:  Life,  in  English  Men  of  Letters  (Lyall) ;  more  complete  account, 
with  valuable  material  about  his  methods  of  revision,  the  writing  of  the  poems, 
etc.,  in  the  biography  by  Hallam  Tennyson;  selections,  with  introduction,  edited 
by  Van  Dyke  (Ginn);  criticism  in  Dowden's  Studies  in  Literature,  Van  Dyke's 
Poetry  of  Tennyson,  Stopford -Brooke's  Tennyson,  Gates's  Studies  and  Apprecia- 
tions, Stedman's  Victorian  Poets.  The  Handbook  by  Morton  Luce  (Macmillan) 
will  be  found  useful.  For  texts  and  bibliographies  of  Tennyson  and  the  other 
principal  Victorian  poets,  see  Page's  British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(Sanborn). 


276 

11.     Robert  Browning  (1812-1889) 

1.  Privately  educated;  won  some  attention  through  Paracelsus 
and  the  production  by  Alacready  of  his  Strafford  and  A  Blot 
in  the  ^Scutcheon:  married  Elizabeth  Barrett,  1846,  and  resided 
in  Italy  until  her  death,    1861;  afterwards  mainly  in  London. 

2.  Early  poems:  Pauline  (1833);  Paracelsus  (1835);  Sordello 
(1840). 

3.  Dramas 

(a)  Strafford  (1837);  Pippa  Passes  (1841);  Kitig  Victor  and 
King  Charles  (1B42);  Return  of  the  Druses  (1843);  A  Blot 
in  the  ^Scutcheon  (1843);  Colomhe^s  Birthday  (1844);  Luria 
(1846);  SouVs  Tragedy  (1846);  In  a  Balcony  (1853). 
(fe)  Plots  usually  invented  by  Browning;  they  lack  action, 
and  stress  psychological  analysis  of  character, 
(c)  Pippa  Passes  is  highly  original  in  conception,  notable 
for  lyrics  and  characterization;  not  a  stage  drama.  In 
a  Balcony  deals  powerfully  with  a  single  intense  situation 
and  suggests  somewhat  the  method  of  Ibsen.  Colomhe's 
Birthday  and  A  Blot  in  the  'Scutcheon  approach  more  nearly 
the  stage  drama  of  the  Elizabethan  type. 


278 

4*  The  Dramatic  Monologues 

(a)  These  mainly  in  volumes  Dramatic  Lyrics  (1842);  Dra- 
matic Romances  (1845);  Men  and  Women  (1855);  Dramatis 
Personae  (1864);  Dramatic  Idyls  (1879-1880). 
(6)  This  Browning's  most  notable  contribution  to  literature; 
subtle  analysis  of  character  revealed  either  in  narrative 
or  in  a  monologue;  great  variety  of  themes,  most  character- 
istic being  those  dealing  with  the  Renaissance;  they  differ 
from  narrative  poems  in  that  incident  is  of  value  only  as 
a  means  of  revealing  character,  that  this  character  analysis 
is  more  deeply  penetrating,  while  other  characters  than  the 
speaker  are  made  almost  equally  vivid. 

5.  The  Ring  and  the  Book  (1868-1869) 

(a)  An  Italian  story  of  murder,  somewhat  like  the  original 
of  Othello  in  sordidness  and  brutality,  but  told  twelve  times, 
each  version  presenting  the  story  from  a  different  view-point ; 
the  story  is  lifted  into  the  realm  of  spiritual  tragedy,  as  in 
Othello. 

6.  Lyrics 

(a)  Despite  the  frequent  difficulty  and  conciseness  of  his 
style,  Browning  attained  the  highest  rank  as  a  writer  of 
lyrics.  These  scattered  through  his  works;  Asolando  (1889) 
his  last  published  volume,  is  mainly  lyrical. 

7.  Poems  based  on  Greek  Literature 

(a)  Balaustion's  Adventure,  from  Euripides  (1871);  Aris- 
tophanes^ Apology,  from  Euripides,  (1875);  Agamemnon, 
from  Aeschylus    (1877). 


280 

Studies 

1.  The  Grammariayi' s  Funeral:  Time?  Meaning?  What  attitude  does 
Browning  take?     Compare  Tennyson's  St.  Simeon  Stylites. 

2.  My  Last  Duchess:  Situation?  Character  of  the  Duke?  To  whom  is 
he  speaking?  Character  of  the  Duchess?  What  characteristics  of  a 
gentleman  of  the  Renaissance  are  here  shown?  Why  is  the  poem  "dra- 
matic"? 

3.  The  Bishop  orders  his  Tomb:  Study  this  poem  as  showing  even  more 
full}'  Browning's  idea  of  the  essential  faults  of  the  later  Italian  Renaissance. 

4.  Caliban:  Source  in  The  Tempest;  meaning  of  the  poem.  Is  it  merely 
a  dramatic  picture  of  primitive  religion  or  is  there  further  significance? 
Study  the  diction. 

5.  Find  illustrations  of  Browning's  optimism;  of  his  view  of  love;  of 
music;  of  art;  of  nature.  How  does  he  differ  from  Tennyson  in  these 
respects? 

6.  Compare  Browning's  use  of  Renaissance  with  Tennyson's  use  of 
Arthurian  material,  and  both  with  other  illustrations  of  the  revival  of 
the  past. 

7.  Dramatic  monologues  for  further  study:  Andrea  del  Sarto;  The  Italian 
in  England;  The  Epistle  of  Karshish;  Saul;  The  Flight  of  the  Duchess. 

fl&la^tid.  ^*  C'/w7de  Harold  to  the  Dark  Tower  Came  is  one  of  the  few  places  in  which 
Browning  deals  with  the  medieval  romances.  The  poem  may  be  com- 
pared with  Tennyson's  Arthurian  studies. 

9.  Poems  related  to  ballad  material:  Herve  Riel;  Muckle  Mouth  Meg. 

10.  Poems  mainly  philosophical  or  religious:  Fra  Lippo  Lippi;  Rabbi 
Ben  Ezra;  Abt  Vogler;  Christmas  Eve;  Bishop  Blougram's  Apology. 

References:  For  additional  texts,  see  Page,  British  Poets;  Berdoe's  Browning 
Cyclopedia  or  Mrs.  Orr's  Handbook  may  be  consulted  for  explanation  of  difficul- 
ties; for  biography,  Sharp,  in  Great  IVriters  series,  and  Chesterton,  in  English 
Men  of  Letters.  Some  valuable  material  may  be  found  in  the  papers  of  the 
Boston  Browning  Society;  other  criticism  inStedman's  Victorian  Poets,  Dowden's 
Studies  in  Literature,  Stopford  Brooke's  The  Poetry  of  Browning. 


282 

III.     Other  poets 

1.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  (1809-1861) 

(a)  Essay  on  Mind  at  17;  student  of  the  classics,  and  trans- 
lator of  Prometheus  Bound  at  24;  almost  hopelessly  ill  after 
1837. 

(6)  Chief  works:  The  Seraphim  (1838);  Romaunt  of  the  Page 
(1839);  Poems  (1844);  Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese  (1850); 
Casa  Guidi  Windows  (1851);  Aurora  Leigh  (1856). 
(c)  Style  careless  and  uneven,  due  to  facility  of  compo- 
sition, but  often  of  high  lyrical  power.  The  Sonnets,  her 
best  work,  may  be  compared  with  the  Elizabethan  cycles. 

2.  .-^thur  Hugh  Clough  (1819-1861) 

(a)  Poems  mainly  lyrical,  most  of  them  written  1840-1850. 
ih)  Careless  of  form,  uneven  in  quality;  thought  tends  to 
scepticism  and  reflects  religious  unrest  of  the  middle  of  the 
century.  Has  no  definite  message,  excellence  due  to  sin- 
cerity and  devotion  to  truth. 

(6)  Important  lyrics:  Qua  Cursum  Ventus;  The  New  Sinai; 
Easter  Day;  So?igs  in  Absence;  Say  not  the  Struggle  Nought 
Availeth. 

3.  Minor  lyric  poets 

(o)  Thomas  Love  Peacock  (1785-1866),  besides  his  novels, 
wrote  many  lyrics. 

(6)  John  Keble  (1792-1866)  wrote  a  collection  of  sacred 
verse,  The  Christian    Year. 

(c)  Thomas  Hood   (1799-1845)   wrote  many  IjtIcs  distin- 
guished for  tunefulness,  wut,  pathos;  the  most  famous  are 
The  Bridge  of  Sighs  and  Song  of  the  Shirt, 
{d)  Winthrop  Mackworth  Praed  (1802-1839)  was  a  writer 
of  society  verse. 

(e)  Thomas  Lovell  Beddoes  (1803-1849),  Death's  Jest  Book. 
(/)  Ed^^ard  Fitzgerald  (1809-1883),  The  Rubaiyat  of  Omar 
Khayyam. 


284 

PROSE   IX   THE   AGE   OF   VICTORIA 

I.     Essayists  and  Critics 

I.  Thomas  Carlyle  (1795-1881) 

(a)  Student    at    University    of    Edinburgh;    studied    law; 

interest  in  German  literature  resulted  in  ]yilhelm  Meister 

{IS24:);  German  Romance  (1827);  lived  in  London  after  1834; 

lectures    1837-1840;   great   reputation  in   America   due   to 

friendship  with  Emerson. 

(6)  Chief  works 

i.  Reviews:  Contributed  mainly  to  the  Edinburgh, 
Fraser's  and  London  Magazine.  Chief  papers:  Richter; 
German  Literature;  Burns  (1828);  Voltaire  (1829); 
BoswelVs  Johnson  (1832). 

ii.  Biography  and  history:  Schiller  (1820-1824);  Crom- 
well (1845);  John  Sterling  (1851),  French  Revolution 
(1837);  Friedrich  II  (1858-1865). 
iii.  Essays  philosophical,  social;  and  literary:  Signs 
of  the  Times  (1829);  Sartor  Resartus  (in  Eraser's 
1833-34,  first  American  edition  1835,  first  English 
edition  1838);  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship  (1841);  Past 
and  Present  (1843);   Latter  Day  Pamphlets  (1851). 

(c)  Thought  influenced  by  German  contemporary  literature, 
by  French  revolution  and  the  progress  of  social  reform; 
individualism. 

(d)  Style  impetuous,  vigorous,  imaginative,  didactic;  marked 
by  apostrophe,  invective,  colloquialism,  coinage  of  words 
and  other  mannerisms.  Imaginative  power  gives  to  biog- 
raphy and  history  effect  of  fiction  and  drama. 


286 

2.  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay  (1800-1859) 

(a)  Precocious  youth,  famous  for  retentive  memory  and 
eagerness  for  knowledge;  at  seven  wrote  "history"  and 
"poetry";  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  won  prizes  for 
composition;  studied  law;  began  contributions  to  Edinburgh 
at  25;  Parliament  1830. 
(6)  Chief  works: 

i.  Literary  and  historical  essays  contributed  to  the 
Edinburgh  Review  1825-1848.  Chief  papers:  Milton, 
Dryden,  Bunyan,  Johnson,  Machiavelli,  Bacon,  Hast- 
ings, Frederick  the  Great,  Addison. 
ii.  History  of  England  (from  the  time  of  James  II) 
(1848-1861) 

iii.  Verse:  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  (1842);  Ivry  and  the 
Armada  (1848). 
(c)  Style:  simplicity,  clear  presentation  of  material,  repe- 
tition; antithesis  and  balance,  which  is  not  only  manifested 
in  sentence  and  paragraph  structure  but  in  contrast  of 
characters,  thus  leading  to  partiality  and  exaggeration.  Dif- 
fers from  Carlyle  in  lack  of  sense  of  mystery  and  passionate 
feeling;  in  a  style  brilliant  instead  of  imaginative;  in  the 
wisdom  of  the  practical  man  as  against  the  visions  of  the 
seer. 


288 

.  Jclin  TT(Miiy  X(nvinan  (1801-1890) 

{(I)  Tninly  College,  Oxford,  1817-1822;  be^anOxford^ Move- 
ment; joined  Roman  Church,  1845;  Cardinal,  1879. 
T^)  Chief  prose_  works:    Tracts  for  the   Times  (1833-1841); 

^^  The  Idea  of  a  University  (1852);  Present  Position  of  Catho- 
lics (1851);  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua  (1864). 

(c)  Fiction:  Loss  and  Gain  (1848);  Callista  (1852). 

(d)  Poems:  many  hymns  and  religious  lyrics;  collected  1834, 
1853;  Dream  of  Gerontius  (1866). 

(e)  Style  marked  by  urbanity;  scholarly  precision ;  adroitness 
in  argument;  sincerity;  lack  of  mannerism,  though  carefully 
elaborated;  subtle  rhythm;  abundance  of  illustration. 

.  ^ohn  Ruskin  (1819-1900) 

(a)  Precocious  youth;  first  publications  at  fifteen;   Christ 

Church,  Oxford,  1837-1842;  lecturer  after  1853  and  professor 

of  Art  at  Oxford;  lived  at  Brantwood  after  1872. 

(6)  Chief  works 

i.  ^\j-t  criticism:  Modern  Painters  (1843-1860);  Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture  (1849) :  Pre-Raphaelitisyn  (1851); 
Stones  of  Venice  (1851-1853). 

ii.  Social  and  political:  Political  Economy  of  Art 
(1857);  Unto  this  Last  {1SQ2) ;  Munera  Pulveris  (1862- 
1863);  Sesame  and  Lilies  (1866);  Crown  of  Wild  Olive 
(1866);  Fors  Clavigera  (1871-1878). 

(c)  Style:   rhythm,    often    passing    into    metre;    length    of 

sentences;  picturesqueness. 

Ad)  Two  main  divisions  of  his  thought :  criticism  of  art,  and 
\|?riticism  of  the  social  system  of  his  time. 


290 

5.  Matthew  Arnold  (1822-1888) 

(a)  Rugby;  Balliol  College,  Oxford  and  fellow  of  Oriel; 
inspector  of  schools  after  1851;  professor  of  Poetry  at  Ox- 
ford, 1857-1867. 

(b)  Poetry;  chiefly  written  1849-1869.  (See  separate  out- 
line). 

(c)  P^ae;  chiefly  written  1861-1888:  On  Translating  Homer 
N     (1861) •,\ Essays   in    Criticisjn    (First    Series,    1865;  ^econd 

Series,  1888);  Celtic  Literature  (1867);  Culture  and  Anarchy 
(1869);  Literature  and  Dogma  (1873);  Discourses  in  America 
(1885). 

(d)  Criticism:  Poetry  to  him  a  "criticism  of  life";  culture, 
by  which  he  means  "setting  ourselves  to  ascertain  what  per- 
fection is  and  to  make  it  prevail"  is  the  text  of  his  work. 

(e)  Style:  ease;  simplicity;  tendency  to  condescension; 
reiteration;  fondness  for  certain  phrases  which  he  uses  as 
symbols;  biblical  flavor, 

6.  Walter  Pater  (1839-1894) 

(a)  Distinguished  for  literary  criticism,  studies  and  inter- 
pretations of  the  Renaissance;  "intellectual  Hedonism." 
Style  marked  by  careful  attention  to  sentence  structure 
and  diction,  producing  at  times  an  effect  of  artificiality. 
(6)  Works:  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance  (1873; 
some  of  the  essays  being  reprinted  from  periodicals) ;  Marius 
the  Epicurean,  a  romance  (1885) ;  Imaginary  Portraits  (1887) ; 
Appreciations  (1889);  Greek  Studies  (1895). 


292 

II.     The  Novel 

I.  Charles  Dickens  (1812-1870) 

(a)  Youth  of  poverty  and  hardship  influenced  his  novels; 
journalism  in  London,  and  throughout  his  life  interested 
in  various  periodicals;  was  also  manager  of  a  theatrical 
company,  and,  when  his  fame  was  established,  gave  many 
readings  from  his  works  in  England  and  America. 
(6)  Early  writings:  Sketches  by  Boz,  journalistic  sketches, 
collected  in  1836;  Pickwick  Papers  (1836-1837),  influenced 
by  Pierce  Egan's  Tom  and  Jerry,  which  had  appeared  period- 
ically 1821-1828. 
(c)  Novels:  First  group 

i.  Oliver  Twist  (1837-1838),  a  picaresque  story  of  slum 
life  in  London. 

ii.  Nicholas  Nickleby  (1838-1839);  Yorkshire  schools, 
and  adventures  of  poor  youth  in  London;  interest  in 
drama. 

ii.  Old  Curiosity  Shop   (1840);   Little  Nell;  story  of 
adventure  type;  itinerant  players, 
iv.  Barnaby  Rudge  (1841),  first  historical  no-^el. 
V.  Martin  Chuzzlewit  (1843);  written  after  first  Ameri- 
can tour  and  contains  harsh  criticism, 
vi.  Christmas  Books  (1843-46;  1848). 
vii.  Dombey  and  Son  (1846-48);  a  study  of  pride, 
viii.  Dceuid  Copper  field  (1849-50) ;  strong  autobiograph- 
ical element;  shows  great  advance  in  structure,  with 
less  of  the  theatrical  and  seniiimental. 


294 

(d)  Last  novels: 

i.  Bleak  House  (J.852-53) ;  introduces  "society." 

ii.   Hard  Times  (1854). 

iii.   Little  Dorrit  (1855-1857);  British  officialdom. 

iv.   Tale  of   Two   Cities   (1859);   French   Revolution; 

type  differs  from  usual. 

V.  Great  Expectations  (1861);  returns  to  earlier  style. 

vi.  Our  Mutual  Friend  (1864-1865). 

(e)  These  novels  show  reaction  from  the  romantic  school 
toward  realism,  yet  they  are  not  thoroughly  realistic.  Humor, 
pathos,  unequalled  creative  power  and  variety  of  character- 
ization. Often  theatrical  rather  than  dramatic,  stressing 
exaggerated  situation  and  character,  tending  to  sentimen- 
tality.    Strong  humanitarian  element. 


296 

2.  William   Makepeace   Thackeray   (1811-1863) 

(a)  Cambridge;  drawing  and  law;  journalism  {Fraser^s  and 
Punch) ;  fame  came  to  him  more  slowly  than  to  Dickens. 
(6)  Early  work:  Barry  Lyndon  (1844);  mock  heroic  defence 
of  gambling,  in  manner  of  Fielding's  Jonathan  Wild;  Book  of 
Siiobs,  same  period,  ridicules  affectations  of  polite  society. 

(c)  Novels 

i.   Vanity  Fair  (1847-1848);  slightly  historical;  study 

of  female  adventurer,  influenced  by  Fielding;  a  rebuke 

to  sentimentality  and  moralizing;  epic  in  structure. 

ii.  Pendennis  (1849-1850);  "a,  new  Tom  Jones." 

iii.    Henry  Esmoiid  (1852);  historical  novel  remarkable 

for  reproduction  of  style  of  Addison's  time  and  for 

masterly  plot. 

iv.   The    Newcomes   (1854-1855);  influence  of  Sterne 

is  seen;  gentler  in  view  of  life  and  character. 

V.   The  Virginians  (1857);  a  sequel  to  Henry  Esmond. 

(d)  Other  works:  Lectures  on  the  English  Humourists, 
(delivered  in  England,  1851,  in  America,  1852,  and  published 
in  1853),  studies  in  poetry  and  prose  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Lectures  on  the  Four  Georges.  Roundabout  Papers 
(essays  contributed  to  Cornhill,  of  which  he  was  editor 
1860-1862.) 

(e)  Thackeray  warred  on  various  types  of  fiction  popular 
from  Scott  to  Dickens,  particular  subjects  of  attack  being 
historical  romance,  conventional  morality,  sentimental  hu- 
manitarianism.  His  position  somewhat  like  that  of  Fielding, 
who  was  his  master.  Excels  in  delineation  of  character, 
epic  sweep  of  plot,  sense  of  the  irony  of  Hfe,  hatred  of  sham. 
His  style  incisive;  conversational;  clear  and  idiomatic. 


298 

George  Eliot  (Marian  Evans)  (1819-1874) 

(a)   Distinguished  in  youth  for  studies  in  German  hterature 
and  philosophy;  turned  to  fiction  1857. 

(6)  Noy^l^^ 

i.  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life  (1858);  written  •  under  in- 
fluence of  Mrs.  Gaskell,  whose  Ruth  (1853)  had  been 
based  on  idea  that  ''characterjs^fate." 
ii.  Adam  Bede  (1859);  The^U^l  onjiej^pss  (1860); 
Silas  Marner  (1861)  are  studies  of  JMidland  life, 
partly  autobiographic,  and  show  the  sense  of  the 
tragic  in  commonplace  life. 

iii.  Romola  (1863)  is  sharply  differentiated  from  the 
preceding  novels  by  its  erudite  treatment  of  phases 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance;  a  tragedy  of  crime  and 
moral  decay. 

iv.  Last  novels:  Felix  Holt  (1866) ;  Middlemarch  (1871- 
1872);  Daniel  Deronda  (1876),  show  increase  of  psy- 
chological analysis  of  various  types  of  character. 
(c)  Eliot  presents  studies  of  character  in  evolution,  not  as 
fixed  types;  her  tragedies  are  based  on  incidents  seemingly 
trivial  rather  than  on  great  crimes;  to  her,  "fate"  is  not 
something  external  but  of  the  soul  itself.  Thus  the  chief 
interest  of  her  novels  lies  not  in  incident  or  plot  structure 
but  in  minute  analysis  of  states  of  the  soul. 


300 

^eOTgeMeredith  (1828-1909) 

(a)Eaiicate(i  in  Germany;  law;  journalism;  tried  verse  and 
prose,  but  won  recognition  slowly. 

(b)  Early  work:   Poems   (1851);    The  Shaving  of  Shagpat, 
a  fantastic  Eastern  tale  (1856). 

(c)  Chief  novels: 

i.   The  Ordeal  of^  Richard  Feverel   (1859);   a  "history 

of  Father  and  Son";  Richard  brought  up  under  ''the 

System"  by  Sir  Austin,  who  is  an  Egoist,  but  nature 

proves  the  stronger. 

ii.  Evan    Harrington,    Sandra  ^  Belloni,    and    Vittoria, 

deal  with   the   sentimentalism   of   gentility;   the  last 

two  show  his  sympathy  with  the  Italian  struggle  for 

independence. 

iii.  Rhoda  Fleming  and  Harry  Richmond  have  mOre  plot 

interest ;  approach  romance ;  didacticism  less  prominent. 

iv.   The  Egoist  (1879);  the  most  complete  exposition 

of  the  "Comic  Spirit." 

v.   Beaucham'p' s  Career,  Diana  of  the  Crossways,  and 

The  Amazing  Marriage  are  the  most- important  of  his 

later  novels. 

(d)  Other  works 

i.  His  theory  of  The  Comic  Spirit  explained  in  the 

lecture  "On  the  Idea  of  Comedy"  (1877)  (supplemented 

by  the  prelude  to  The  Egoist,  and  the  first  chapter  of 

Diana). 

ii.  Later  poems:  Modern  Love  (1862) ;  Poems  and  Lyrics 

(1883). 

(e)  Meredith  attacks  pride  and  sentimentalism;  agrees  with 
Eliot  that  character  is  fate  ("we  are  betrayed  by  what  is 
false  within"),  but  gains  through  comedy  (''thoughtful  laugh- 
ter") the  purifying  influence  of  tragedy.  /  Style  distinguished 
for  brilliancy;  mannerism  leading  to  obscurity;  epigranunatic 
dialogue  which,  nevertheless,  characterizes;  by  the  presence 
of  the  comic  spirit  rather  than  humor  or  satire. 


302 

'smother  novelists 

(a)  Charlotte  Bronte,  Jane  Eyre  (1847);  Shirley  (1849). 
(6)  Emily  Bronte,  Wuthering  Heights  (1847). 

(c)  Elizabeth  Gaskell,  Cranford  (1853);  Ruth  (1853). 

(d)  Charles  Kingsley,  Alton  Locke  (1849);   Hypatia  (1853); 
Westward  Ho  (1855) 

(e)  Anthony   Trollope    (1815-1882):    The    Warden    (1855); 
Barchester  Towers  (1857);  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset  (1867). 
(/)  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  (1850-1894):  distinguished  for 
his  short  stories,  his  romances,  and  his  familiar  essays  on 
men  and  books. 

(9-V<5-  /f -af-  ig)  Thomas  Hardy  (born  1840):  The  Return  of  the  Native 
(1878)  and  Tess  of  the  Durbervilles  (1891)  best  illustrate  his 
method  and  his  theory  of  life.  Minute  realism  in  his  studies 
of  Wessex  life;  opposed  to  Eliot  by  his  theory  of  fate  outside 
of  character  and  manifested  through  the  cruelty  of  Nature; 
/[^  work  marks  the  chasm  that  separates  Wordsworth's 
\(!onfidence  in  Nature  from  modern  scepticism.  His  novels 
constructed  on  the  plan  of  Elizabethan  drama;  distinguished 
for  skill  in  characterization,  mastery  of  plot,  and  precision 
of  style. 

Studies 

1.  I.  Find  illustrations  in  the  assigned  reading  of  the  characteristics 
of  style  and  thought  of  the  prose  Avriters  treated  in  section  I. 

2.  Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns  is  excellent  as  a  means  of  studying  the  author's 
style  when  most  free  from  mannerism;  for  its  sympathetic  study  of  the 
poet,  and  as  a  means  of  appreciating  the  differences  between  romantic 
theories  of  poetic  diction  and  theme  and  those  of  Pope's  time. 

3.  Macaulay's  use  of  antithesis  and  balance  should  be  compared  with 
Bacon's. 

4.  Macaulay's  limitations  as  a  critic  of  literature. 

5.  Study  the  rhetoric  of  the  paragraph  as  illustrated  by  one  of  tlie  writers 
of  this  group,  such  as  Carlylc,  Macaulay,  or  Arnold. 

6.  Study  the  diction  of  these  three  writers. 


304 

II.  I.  Study  the  novels  assigned  for  reading  in  accordance  with  the 
outline  at  p.  255. 

2.  Find  illustrations  of  characteristics  of  style  and  method  named  in 
the  outline  under  each  novelist. 

3.  Vanity  Fair:  Are  the  relations  of  the  two  main  plots  always  well 
managed?  Which  plot  is  the  more  interesting?  Why?  What  means 
are  employed  to  gain  this  result?  Explain  the  significance  of  the  sub- 
title. Distinguish  between  the  exaggeration  in  this  novel  and  that  found 
in  Dickens.  What  does  Thackeray  say,  in  the  novel,  as  to  his  view  of 
realism?     Compare  Thackeray  and  Fielding. 

4.  Henry  Esmond:  How  does  the  method  differ  from  that  of  Vanity 
Fair?  In  what  ways  is  the  prose  style  of  the  age  of  Addison  imitated? 
Compare  the  novel  with  one  of  Scott's  historical  novels. 

5.  Middhmarch:  Account  for  the  large  number  of  characters  and  plots 
running  through  this  novel?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  title  in  this 
connection?     What,  then,  is  the  purpose  of  the  novel? 

W^hat  is  the  relation  of  the  prologue  to  the  story?  Is  it  true  that 
Middlemarch  is  a  "tragedy  of  lost  ideals?"  How  does  the  story  of  Lyd- 
gate  illustrate  the  thesis  that  character  is  fate?  Account  for  Dorothea's 
affection  for  Ladislaw;  what  seems  to  be  Eliot's  attitude  towards  him? 

Differentiate  between  the  realism  of  Eliot  and  that  of  Dickens;  Thack- 
eray; Austen. 

6.  Meredith:  The  most  important  topic  is  to  study  Meredith's  theory 
of  comedy;  to  this  end,  the  essay  on  Comedy  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  Richard  Feverel  or  The  Egoist.  Note  especially  the  means  by  which 
Meredith  gains  something  of  the  effect  of  tragedy  through  what  he  denom- 
inates comedy.     Compare  Thackeray  and  Dickens  on  this. 

Methods  of  characterization;  the  mingling  of  realism  with  romance; 
Meredith's  women;  the  rhetoric  of  Meredith,  are  other  topics  for  study. 

References: 

I.  Besides  the  general  histories  of  the  period  the  following  special  works  may  be 
consulted:  Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Sartor  are  edited,  with  extensive  introductions, 
by  MacMechan  in  the  Athenaeum  Press  Series  (Ginn) ;  the  best  editions  of  selec- 
tions from  Newman  and  Arnold,  by  Gates,  are  published  in  Holt's  English 
Readings;  in  the  same  series.  Pater,  edited  by  Hale.  In  the  English  Men  of  Let- 
ters Series  are  biographies  of  Carlyle  (Nichol) ;  Pater  (Benson) ;  Kuskin  (Harrison) ; 
Arnold  (Paul) ;  Macaulay  (Morison).  The  various  critical  introductions  in  Craik's 
EtKjlish  Prose. 

II.  In  English  Men  of  Letters  Series  are  biographies  of  Dickens  (Ward) ;  Eliot 
(Stephen);  Thackeray  (Trollope).  For  Meredith,  see  J.  W.  Beach,  The  Comic 
Spirit  in  Meredith  (Longmans);  M.  S.  Henderson,  George  Meredith  (Scribners); 
James  Moffat,  A  Primer  to  the  Novels  (Hodder  and  Stoughton).  See  also  the 
general  histories  of  the  Novel  already  cited,  and  Bliss  Perry,  A  Study  of  Prose 
Fiction  (Houghton). 


306 

LATER   VICTORIAN   POETRY 

I.     General  characteristics  of  the  period 

1.  A  period  of  reaction:  progress  of  the  scientific  movement; 
faihng  of  revolutionary  enthusiasm;  reUgious  doubt. 

2.  Sources  of  inspiration  medieval  and  classical 

(a)  Strong  sense  of  detachment;  medieval  themes  not  used 
as  a  means  for  interpreting  contemporary  life,  as  in  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  but  as  a  means  of  escape. 
(6)  Increasing  attention  to  form ;  evidence  of  failing  imagina- 
tion; in  some  poems  clear  marks  of  decadence. 

(c)  Contrast  with  this  neo-romanticism  the  intense  realism 
and  the  increasing  importance  of  the  novel. 

(d)  Nature  as  a  theme  for  poetry  less  important;  patriotism 
and  enthusiasm  for  democracy  rare. 

II.     Matthew  Arnold  (1822-1888) 

1.  Poetical  works:  The  Strayed  Reveller  and  Other  Poems  (1849); 
Empedocles  on  Etna  and  Other  Poems  (1852);  Poems  (1853); 
Merope  (1858);  New  Poems  (1867);  collective  edition  of  Poems 
(1869). 

2.  Representative  poems 

(a)  Narrative  poems  treated  in  the  manner  of  Greek  epic 
or  tragedy;  themes  oriental,  Norse,  Celtic:  Sohrab  and 
Rustum;  Balder  Dead;  Tristram  and  Iseult. 
{b)  Elegiac  poems:  The  Scholar  Gypsy;  Thyrsis;  Rugby 
Chapel ;  Heine's  Grave,  etc.  Note  the  strong  elegiac  element 
in  all  Arnold's  poetry. 

(c)  Poems  of  disillusion,  doubt,  resignation:  Dover  Beach; 
Stagirius;  Worldly  Place;  Self-deception;  Bacchanalia.  This 
element  also  found  in  The  Scholar  Gypsy  and  in  many  lyrics. 
{d)  Classical  themes:  The  Forsaken  Merman;  The  Strayed 
Reveller;  Empedocles  on  Etna;  Merope,  etc. 
Jf^  Legend:  The  Neckan;  St.  Brandan,  etc. 
(/)  Sonnets. 


308 

m.     Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (1828-1882) 

1.  Student  of  dmwiug  and  painting  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Pre-Raphaelite  movement. 

2.  Writings:  Early  Italian  Poets  (1861);  Poems  (1870);  Ballads 
and  Sonnets  (1881). 

3.  Representative  poems 

(a)  Medieval  themes,  neo-romantic  in  treatment;  as  a  rule 
ballads  either  literary  and  mystical  in  manner  or  attempts 
at  imitation  of  the  old  ballads  in  use  of  refrain,  diction,  etc. 
This  group  picturesque  but  vague  and  sensuous:  The  Blessed 
Damozel;  Troy  Town;  Eden  Bower;  Staff  and  Scrip;  Sister 
Helen;  Stratton  Water;  Rose  Mary;  The  Ki?ig^s  Tragedy. 

(b)  Realistic  poems:  The  Last  Confession  (a  story  of  Italian 
life  suggesting  Browning's  dramatic  monologues);  Jenny. 

(c)  Lyrics. 

(d)  Sonnets  for  Pictures;  and  The  House  of  Life  (a  sonnet 
sequence). 

IV.     William  Morris  (1834-1896) 

1.  Architecture;  painting;  household  arts;  printing;  socialism. 

2.  Chief  poetical  works 

(a)  Ballad  period,  strongly  influenced  by  Pre-Raphaelite 
ideals,  resulting  in  poetry  somewhat  like  Rossetti's:  poems 
of  this  group  chiefly  contained  in  The  Defence  of  Guenevere 
and  Other  Poems  (1858).  Besides  the  title  poem,  important 
illustrations  of  this  phase  of  his  work  are  King  Arthur  s 
Tomb;  Rapunzel;  The  Eve  of  Crecy;  etc.  More  realistic  in 
their  presentation  of  medievalism  are  Shameful  Death,  The 
Haystack  in  the  Floods,  Riding  Together,  etc. 
(6)  Chaucerian  period:  The  Life  and  Death  of  Jason  (1866); 
The  Earthly  Paradise  (1S6S-1S70);  Sigurd  the  Volsung  (1877). 
These  are  collections  of  narrative  poems,  told  in  the  manner 
of  Chaucer  and  imitating  medieval  originals  in  stanza,  metre, 
and  diction;  sources  classical,  oriental,  Norse,  etc.,  treated 
from  medieval  point  of  view. 

(c)  Poems  of  contemporary  life:  Poems  by  the  Way  (1891). 
These  less  significant  than  his  medieval  poems. 

3.  Morris  also   wrote  a  number  of  prose  romances;  translated 
Norse  sagas,  and  translated  the  Aeneid  and  tlie  Odyssey. 


310 

Algernon  Charles  Swinburne  (1837-1909) 

1.  Chief  poetical  works 

(a)  Dramas:  Atalanta  in  Calydon  (1865)  and  Erechtheus 
(1876)  are  dramas  of  classical  type;  The  Queen  Mother  (1860), 
Rosa?nond  (1860),  Chastelard  (1865),  Bothwell  (1874),  and 
Mary  Stuart  (1881)  are  of  the  Ehzabethan  type. 
(6)  Poems  and  Ballads  (1866;  1878;  1889).  The  three  series 
include  a  very  large  number  of  poems  chiefly  lyric  or  short 
narratives,    on    medieval,    classical,    and    Hebrew    themes. 

(c)  Narrative  poems  drawn  from  Arthurian  material:  Tris- 
tram of  Lyonesse  (1882);  Tale  of  Balen  (1896). 

(d)  As  a  poet,  Swinburne  notable  for  facility;  great  variety 
of  metre  and  stanza  forms;  great  learning;  marvelous  lyrical 
power.  His  work  often  decadent,  appealing  to  senses;  a 
pessimist.     Lacks  restraint;  small  variety  in  mood. 

2.  Criticism:  William  Blake  (1868);  George  Chapman  (1875); 
Essays  and  Studies  (1875);  A  Study  of  Shakespeare  (1880);  The 
Age  of  Shakespeare  (1908). 


312 

Studies 

1.  Note  parallels  between  Arnold's  critical  theory  (chiefly  as  respects 
themes  of  poetry,  the  grand  style,  view  of  Homer,  etc.)  and  his  classical 
treatment  of  medieval  stories. 

2.  Test  Arnold's  interpretation  of  medieval  life  and  character  by  compar- 
ing Balder  Dead  with  Beowulf.     Compare  it  also  with  Homer. 

3.  Find  in  Arnold's  poems  illustrations  of  his  philosophy  of  life  and  view 
of  his  times. 

4.  Compare  Arnold  and  Gray. 

5.  Compare  Rossetti's  ballads:  (a)  with  the  folk  ballads;  (6)  with  the 
Ancient  Mariner. 

6.  The  influence  of  Blake  on  Rossetti. 

7.  The  Pre-Raphaelite  movement  as  related  to  English  poetry. 

8.  Compare  Morris's  Arthurian  poems  with  the  treatment  of  the  same 
themes  (a)  by  Malory;  (6)  by  Tennyson. 

9.  Compare  the  early  group  of  medieval  poems  by  Morris  {Guenevere, 
King  Arthur,  Geffray  Teste  Noire,  Old  Love,  Shameful  Death,  etc.)  with 
the  group  represented  by  The  Judgment  of  God,  The  Haystack  in  the 
Floods,  etc. 

10.  Study  the  metrical  forms  used  in  Jason,  Earthly  Paradise,  Sigurd, 
and  account  for  them. 

11.  Morris  and  Chaucer. 

12.  Classify  some  of  the  poems  in  Swinburne's  Poeiyis  and  Ballads  and 
discuss  one  of  the  groups. 

References:  For  the  entire  period  see  especially  Stedman's  Victorian  Poets 
and  the  texts  and  bibliographies  in  Page's  British  Poets.  For  Arnold,  consult 
the  references  given  under  the  outline  for  his  prose.  For  Rossetti,  see  the  biog- 
raphy by  Joseph  Knight  in  Great  Writers  Series;  Pater,  Appreciations;  Swinburne, 
Essays  and  Studies.  For  Morris,  Mackail's  Life;  Dowden,  Transcripts  and  Stud- 
ies; Swinburne,  Essays  and  Studies. 


INDEX    TO    AUTHORS    AND   PERIODS 


PAGES 

Addison,  Joseph 178 

Aelfric 12 

Alfred 12 

Akenside,  Mark 192 

Ainsworth,  W.  H 254 

Arbuthnot,  Dr.  John 180 

Anglo  Saxon  Period 

The  People 2 

The  Language 4 

The  Literature 6 

Ariosto 56, 120 

Armstrong,  John 192 

Arnold,  Matthew 290,  306 

Ascham,  Roger 112 

Austen,  Jane 252 

Bacon,  Sir  Francis 116,  142 

Ballads,  Popular 42-46 

Bede 12 

Barbour,  John 34 

Barclay  Alexander 50,  62 

Barclay,  John 168 

Baxter,  Richard 142 

Beattie,  James 216 

Beaumont,  Francis 106 

Beckford,  William 216 

Beddoes,  T.  L 282 

Behn,  Aphra 166,  168 

Bentley,  Richard 178 

Berners,  Lord 40 

Bible,  The  Enghsh 122, 124 

Blackstone,  Sir  William 208 

Blair,  Robert 194 

Blake,  Wilham 222 

Blind  Harry 34 

Boswell,  James 200 

Boyle,  Roger 166,  168 

Bronte,  Charlotte 302 

Bronte,  Emily 302 


PAGES 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas 140 

Browne,  William 130 

Browning,  Ehzabeth  B 282 

Browning,  Robert 276-280 

Bulwer,  Edward  (Lord  Lytton) 254 

Bunyan,  John 170 

Burke,  Edmund 2OO 

Burnet,  Bishop 172 

Burney,  Frances 206, 252 

Burns,  Robert 222 

Burton,  Robert 140 

Butler,  Bishop IgQ 

Butler,  Samuel 164 

Byron,  Lord 236-238,  246 

Caedmon 10 

Calpren^e,  La 168 

Camden,  William 116 

Campbell,  Thomas : 250 

Campion,  Thomas 114 

Carew,  Thomas ' 132 

Carlyle,  Thomas 284 

Caxton,  WiUiam 40 

Chapman,  George 104, 120 

Chatterton,  Thoma:. 216 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey 24-30 

Chesterfield,  Earl  of 180,  208 

Chretien  de  Troyes 20,  22 

Cibber,  Colley 180 

Clarendon,  Earl  of 172 

Clough,  Arthur  Hugh 282 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor 230, 244 

Colet,  John 48 

Collier,  Jeremj' 172 

Colhns,  William 214 

Congreve,  William 166, 168 

Coverdale,  Miles 122 

Cowley,  Abraham 138 

Cowper,  William 220 


315 


316 


PAGES 

Crabbe,  George 220 

Cra^haw,  Richard 132 

Cumberland,  Richard 210 

Cynewulf 10 

Daniel,  Samuel 60,  114 

Davenant,  Sir  Wilham 166 

Da  vies,  Sir  John 130 

Defoe,  Daniel 176 

Dekker,  Thomas 104 

Deloney,  Thomas 110 

Denham,  Sir  John 136 

Dennis,  John 180 

De  Quincey,  Thomas 266 

Dickens,  Charles 292-294 

Donne,  John 126 

Douglas,  Gawin 34 

Drama 

Early 76 

Elizabethan 82 

Eighteenth  Century 166,  210 

Drayton,  Michael 126,  136 

Drummond,  William 130 

Dryden,  John 158-162 

Dunbar,  ^^■ilham 34 

Dyer,  John 192, 196 

Earle,  John 170 

Edgeworth,  Maria 252 

Eighteenth  Century 

Prose 176-182;  198-208;  216-218 

Poetry 184-196;  214-216;  220-224 

Drama 166,210-212 

Eliot,  George 298 

Ehzabetlian  Period 

Anthologies 66 

Drama 82-106 

Pastorals 62-64 

Prose 108-118 

Sonnets 58-60 

Translations 120-124 

Elliot,  Ebenezer 250 

Erasmus 48 

Evelyn,  John 172 


PAGES 

Fairfax,  Edward 120 

Farquhar,  George 166 

Fielding,  Henry 204 

Fitzgerald,  Edward 282 

Fletcher,  Giles 130 

Fletcher,  John 106 

Fletcher,  Phineas 130 

Florio,  John 120 

Ford,  John 106 

Fuller,  Thomas 140 

Garrick,  David 200 

Gascoigne,  George 54,  82,  84,  1 12 

GaskeU,  Mrs 302 

Gay,  John. 194 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 16,  20 

Gibbon,  Edward .  . 200 

Giflford,  WiUiam 260 

Gloucester,  Humphrey  of 48 

Godwm,  William 252 

Goldsmith,  Oliver 200,  206,  210,  212 

Googe,  Barnaby 62 

Gosson,  Stephen 112 

Gower,  John 32 

Gray,  Thomas 214 

Greene,  Robert 88,  108 

Habington,  William 132 

Hakluyt,  Richard 116 

Hall,  Joseph 136,  170 

Hardy,  Thomas 302 

Harington,  Sir  John 114 

Hawes,  Stephen 36 

Hazlitt,  WiUiaiii 264 

Henry  of  Huntingdon 16 

Henryson,  Robert 34 

Herbert,  George 132 

Herrick,  Robert 128 

Heywood,  John 78 

Hobbes,  Thomas 142 

Hoby,  Thomas 120 

Hogg,  James 250 

Holcroft,  Thomas 252 

Hohnshed,  Raphael 116 


317 


PAGES 

Hood,  Thomas 282 

Hooker,  Richard 116 

Humanism 48 

Hume,  David 208 

Hunt,  Leigh 268 

Hurd,  Bishop 218 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth 252 

James  I.  of  Scotland 34 

James,  G.  P.  R 254 

Jeffrey,  Francis 260 

Johnson,  Samuel 198 

Jonson,  Ben 104, 128, 136 

"Junius" 208 

Keats,  John 242,246 

Keble,  John •. 282 

KeUy,  Hugh 210 

Kingsley,  Charles 254,  302 

Kyd,  Thomas 88 

Lamb,  Charles 262 

Landor,  Walter  Savage 248 

Langland,  WiUiam  (?) 32 

Layamon 16,  20 

Lee,  Nathaniel 166 

Lewis,  "Monk" 216 

Locke,  John 172 

Lockhart,  John  G 260 

Lodge,  Thomas 108, 112 

Lovelace,  Richard 132 

Lydgate,  John 36 

Lyly,  John 86 

Ivlacaulay,  Thomas  B 286 

Maehiavelli 120 

Mackenzie,  Henry 206 

Macpherson,  James 216 

Malory,  Sir  Thomas 38 

Mandeville,  Bernard 180 

Mantuan 62 

Marlowe,  Christopher 66,  86 

Marot 62 

Marvell,  Andrew 164 


PAGES 

Maturin,  C.  R 252 

Meredith,  George 300 

Middle  English  Period 

Language 14 

Literature 16 

Fourteenth  Century 24 

Later 38-46 

Milton,  John 144-156 

Mitford,  Mary 254 

Montagu,  Lady  Mary 180 

Moore,  Thomas 250 

More,  Sir  Thomas 48 

Morris,  William 308 

Nash,  Thomas 110 

Newman,  John  Henry 288 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac 172 

North,  Sir  Thomas 48,  120 

Norton,  Thomas 52,  82 

Novel 

Elizabethan 108-110 

Seventeenth  Century 168-172 

Eighteenth  Centiu-y.  .  .  .176,  202-206,  216 
Nineteenth  Century.  . .  .252-258;  292-304 

Occleve,  Thomas 36 

Oldham,  John 164 

Orm 16 

Otway,  Thomas 166 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas 170 

Painter,  William 108 

Parnell,  Thomas 194 

Pater,  Walter 290 

Peacock,  T.  L 254,  282 

Peele,  George 88 

Peyps,  Samuel 172 

Percy,  Thomas 216 

Petrarch 56,62,120 

Philips,  Ambrose 194 

PhiUps,  John '.192,  194 

Pomfret,  John 194 

Pope,  Alexander 184-190 

Porter,  Jane 252 


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